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(영어독해자료)A Brief History of Korea
[영문독해]/잼있는 독해자료들
2011. 12. 8. 18:10
A Brief History of Korea
Ancient History
2333 BC - 313 AD
The Chosun nation first formed from the various Tungusic tribes (a subdivision of the Ural-Altaic people) from Mongolia.
The first dynasty of note was the Tan'gun dynasty, a theocracy which ruled from Pyongyang from 2333 BC - 1122 BC. The historical and cultural accuracy our knowledge of this dynasty is still debated today. Several scholars claim this is a mythic dynasty, a story to explain the beginning of the Korean people. Others view this dynasty as a historical fact, and attribute a cultural/spiritual signifigance to it. The truth is propbably somewhere in the middle. Nonetheless, it was later usurped by the Kija Dynasty (1122 BC - 194 BC), which was founded by a Chinese scholar.
In 108 BC the Han Dynasty of China extended into North Korea, turning the North into the Lolang Province (ed. note: Lolang is the US spelling, Nangnang is the preferred Korean spelling). Chinese cultural influence thus spread into Korea, resulting in Korean adoption of a centralized beaurocracy, Confusionism, and others.
The Three Kingdoms Period
37 BC - 935 AD
While the North was occupied by China as the Lolang province, the remaining South had been subdivided by the three Han tribes. In the Southwest was the Ma Han. In the Southeast was the Pyon Han. And in the middle was the Chin Han.
In 37 BC the Koguryo invaded the North from Southern Manchuria, and formed a new Northern kingdom which competed heavily with the Lolang Province (eventually defeating them in 313 AD). With such pressure from the North, the Chin Han and Pyon Han merged, to form the Silla Dynasty in 57 BC. The Ma Han meanwhile had evolved into the Paekche (Paikje) Dynasty, and the two (Silla and Paekche) eventually allied (with possibly Japan) to defend against the Koguryo. During this turbulent time, especially around 372 AD , Buddhism and Confusionism were widely introduced to the Korean Penninsula, with colleges and Chinese classics quickly adopted.
By 660 AD the Silla, allied with the Tang Chinese, finally conquered the Paekche (despite Japanese interference on the latter's behalf), unifying the South. Again allied to the Tang Chinese, the Silla defeated the Koguryo in 668 AD, finally unifying the Korean Penninsula.
The Unified Silla adopted Confusionism, merging it with uniquely Korean Monarchy theory. In essense, high positions in administration were determined by a mix of family connections and Confusion principles. The country was divided into nine provinces, with each province run by officials loyal to the central administartion. The Central Administartion, in turn, was composed of high ranking civilian and military officials. Both Confusionism and Buddhism flourished in the relatively stable atmosphere of the Unified Silla.
Koryo Dynasty
935 AD - 1392 AD
Northern dissidents of the Silla established themselves, and led by General Wangkun formed the Koryo Dynasty in the North in 918. By 935 the Silla surrenderred, and a new capital for the Koyro Dynasty was established as Kaesung. Sweeping social changes were enacted, including the nationalization of farms, the disbanding of private armies, installation of Chinese sytle exam systems, and seperation of the government into a central aristoractic administration and a seperate military administration. During this time Buddhism was adopted as the official religion, and monks and priests enterred government ranks. One of the great Buddhist artifacts was created at this time, the 81,240 wooden block carvings of the Tripitaka. This enourmous collection of Buddhist scripture was carefully carved into wooden blocks for printing, and can still be seen today.
By 1123 the Koryo had begun to fracture into seperate rival factions. This was accelerated in part by the Mongol invasion of 1231 AD and conquest in 1270 AD. In a little known footnote to history, in 1234 bronze movable type was invented. However, this invention was never exploited by the people of the time, and it's signifigance on politics, economy, religion, and humanity in general was left for the West to discover several hundred years later. Koryo was turned into a vassel of the Khan, and the people were heavily taxed to fund the attempted invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281. Korean men were also consripted into service for the invasion attempts. Koryo remained subservient to the Mongols until 1368, when it finally broke free. However, the damage had been done, and in 1392 General Yi took over, founding the Yi dynasty and moving it's capital to Seoul.
Yi Dynasty and Japanese Invasions
1392 AD - 1598 AD
After moving the Capital to Seoul, the Yi Dynasty re-established ties with Ming Dynasty China. Neoconfusionism was established as the official religion, and Buddhism was severly persecuted. Most modern Korean Confusionism today can be traced back to this widespread establishment of Neoconfusionism.
In 1443 AD King Sae Jong (1418 AD - 1450 AD) developped Hangul, the Korean writing system (alphabet) which is the standard today. The reasons for the King's development of Hangul are somewhat in dispute. The popular theory is that the writing system was developped by a benevolent king, eager to help the populace in developping popular education and trade with China and Japan. Indeed, this view is supported in part by the great use of Hangul as a popular writing system, with the aristoracy and higher government depending upon traditional Chinese writing systems. However, another view, using research into the charcters used in Hangul and Chinese characters, holds that Hangul was developped as a research tool, designed to explore the Chinese writing system. In either case, Hangul represents a significant development, for unlike Chinese or Japanese, it is a phonetically based system, much like the english/latin alphabet. More importantly, it is extremely easy to learn and use, especially compared to the Chinese systems of the time. The net result was the development of a popular writing system, which is still in strong use today, and the mythical enshrinement of King Sae Jong (His portrait adorns the 100 won coin and the 1,000 won bill ... currency equivilent in usage to the US quarter and dollar bill).
However, the stable reign of the Yi Dynasty was not to last forever, and in 1576 AD the court split into East and West factions. This split was soon followed by the attempted Japanese invasion of China in 1592. While Japanese armies were able to defeat Korean troops on the battlefield, the navel engagements were decidedly in Korea's favor. Credited with smashing the Japanese fleets was Admiral Yi Sun Sim and his "turtle" ships. The first ironclad ships ever used in combat (predating Western use), the turtle ships were, as the name suggests, low lying ships with heavy iron plating on the top and sides of the ship. Metal spikes atop the armor plates prevented boarding, and portholes were used to fire arros and other projectiles. Admiral Yi's resounding victories were so great that he has become a mythic figure in Korean military history, still regarded as the greatest Korean military leader. However, his navel victories were not enough to hold off the Japanese, which occupied Southern Korea until they were finally driven out in 1598. The invasions didn't end until 1627, when the Manchus invaded, and Korean became a vassel state of the Ching Dynasty.
Colonial Korea
1777 AD - 1905 AD
In 1777 AD Catholicism was introduced in Korea when a Korean man, who had travelled to China and had observed Catholic missionaries, brought back the religion to his village. It would be several years before formal missionaries arrived, but already the presence of Western influence in Korea was seen as undesireable, and by the turn of the century Prince Tae Won Kun had closed the country to Westerners.
This closing was not enough to stop the Western invasion, and by 1839 the first French Catholic priest was martyred. 1866 was marked by the French bombardment of Kangwha Island, and the burning of a US ship at the Taedong river. US retaliation came in the form of the seizing of Kangwha Island [Ed. note: I believe Kangwha island is at the mouth of the Han river, downstream from the capital Seoul] in 1871 AD. And by 1876, much like China, Korea was forced to accept a lopsided trade treaty with Japan, with similer treaties signed with the US, France, Briton, Russia, and Germany.
In 1894 the Tonghak revolution began, causing great civil unrest in Korea. [Ed. note: The Tonghak revolution was much like the Boxer revolution in China; a mix of poverty, frustration, and mysticism. Followers blamed the ruling class and foreigners for their situation, and sought to violently overthrow them, believing that aided by magic items/spells/etc. they would be immune to Western weapons like the gun.] The ruling class asked China to send in troops to put down the rebellion which was growing out of control. However, the presence of Chinese troops, as well as the civil unrest, were used by Japan as an excuse to send in their own troops. The resulting war between China and Japan was finally ended in 1895 AD, capped off by the assasination of Queen Min of Korea, by the Japanese.
Fresh from their victory over China, Japanese colonial expansion continued, bumping into the other major regional player, Russia, which had been expanding their own imperialist efforts. The resulting Russo-Japanese war of 1905 AD left Japan as the only major power, free to fully exploit Korea in a mad quest for imperial glory.
Japanese Exploitation
1905 AD - 1945 AD
By 1905 AD Japan had assumed administration over Korea, which technically remained a seperate country (altough pretty much in name only). By 1910 AD even that farce was eliminated with the formal annexation of Korea by Japan, thus giving the new exansionist country its first colony. All government functions (police, fire, roads, etc.), as well as all industries, were taken over by Japanese, and Korea's economy was re-geared towards providing Japan with food and material for the expanding imperialistic efforts. Japanese became the official language, and Shintoism became the official religion. Usage of the Korean language (in print at first) was banned, and local religions were persecuted. Korean became the "Rice Bowl" of Japan, as evidenced by a dramatic increase in total rice output. However, per capita consumtion of rice fell even more dramatically. So while there was more rice then ever before, everybody but the Japanese were going hungry. Such exploitation expanded in 1937 AD, when Korea became the stragetic base for operations in the invasion of China. Korean men were conscripted to fight in the army, and Korean women were conscripted for use as sex slaves for Japanese troops. All use of the Korean language was banned outright, and all Koreans were forced to adopt new Japanese names. Punishment was severe, as evidenced by the return by Japan in the 1990's of the cremeted noses of hundreds of Korean women, which were cut off during this period. All forms of torture were used to keep the populace uner control, and the country was laid waste by the opression and exploitation. The situation was to last up to the end of the Second World War, when Korea was finally liberated by the Soviets and Americans.
[Ed note: For brevity's sake, and my own sanity, I've kept the invective set on low. However, I can't emphasize enough the sheer amount and depth of Japanese cruelty of the time. Several museums in Korea go into this with more detail. But if you need modern events for perspective, just imagine the ethnic cleansing in Kosovo, lasting for 40 years.]
Korea Divided
1945 AD - 1950 AD
The surrender of Japan in 1945 meant the liberation of Korea. American occupying forces moved into the Southern half of the penninsula, while Russian forces, who had been preparing for an invasion of Japan, occupied the Northern half. By mutal decision, Korea was divided at the 38th Parallel, and unification would follow popular elections. However, the end of World War II also meant the beginning of the Cold War, and Korea was a stragetic point neither side was willing to concede. While the US formed an interm government in the South, Russia set up a communist government in the North. Not helping matters was great disunity amongst Koreans. Due to the Japanese occupation, there was a severe talent shortage, as few Koreans had been allowed to function within the government or industry. Those that had were collaboraters, and were despised by a large segment of the populace. Disputes arose over whether to ban all former collaberators, or whether to allow them to participate as they were the only people anywhere close to qualificatied to run the beaurocracy. Other opposing groups emerged, such as Communists vs. Industrialists, Liberals vs. Conservatives, pro-China vs. pro-Soviet vs. pro-US. Needless to say, early unification efforts failed, stymied by Cold War politics and internal divisions.
By 1948 the Democractic Peoples' Republic of Korea was formed in the North, and the Republic of Korea was formed in the South. Following the formation of the government, US forces pulled out of Korea, as it ramped down overall military commitments. In January of 1950, Secretary of State Acheson made made, what appears in hindsight, rather careless statements to the Washington National Press Club declaring Korea as unimportant to US stragetic goals in Asia, effectively placing Korea outside of the US defense shield. With the green light from Washington, North Korea, with approval from Stalinist Russia, prepared for a quick invasion.
The Korean War
1950 AD - 1953 AD
The Korean War began in June of 1950, when North Korean tanks rolled across the 38th parallel, attempting to quickly unite the country by force. Unprepared, undermanned, and overwhelmed, ROK forces retreated wildly, as the US rushed what troops it had from Japan. Such efforts were mostly futile, North Korean forces outnumbering US and ROK forces by a 2-1 ratio, not including ROK's complete lack of aircraft, artillary, and serviceable tanks. In short time the South Korean army was pushed back into a small defensive perimiter around the port city of Pusan, located at the Southern tip of the penninsula. During the hostilities, the UN Security Council had convened to take up the matter of possible intervention. It was here that the Soviet Union made one of the most unusual diplomatic moves, boycotting the Security Council meeting in protest of Nationalist China having a seat instead of Communist Mainland China. With the USSR abstaining, The resolution allowing UN forces to conduct a "policing" action, restoring the penninsula back to pre-war form unexpectantly passed, and quickly US troops, with minor contingents from other Western countries, were pouring into the area. Unfortunately, the tactical and logistical situation was poor at best. Ground forces were stretched thin, and barely holding onto the "Pusan Perimeter". Troops and supplies were taking time to move from the US to staging areas in Japan, and then onwards to the battlefront. WWII General McAurther was appointed supreme commander of UN operations, and devised a brilliantly bold plan for winning the conflict.
His now famous invasion was both simple and bold. A large UN force would land behind enemy lines at Inchon, the port city serving the capital, Seoul, and turn South to attack North Korean forces. Meanwhile, a second division of UN forces would break out of the penninsula, completing the pincer action. Caught between the two armies, the North Korean invasion force would be effectively smashed. However, due to the limited number of ports capable of handling such a large invasion, combined with a treacherous beaches subject to strong tidal forces, the landing at Inchon was VERY predictable, both in location and time. Due to a gradually sloping beach that stretched for miles to sea, a miscalculation of the tides would leave the invasion force stranded in a sea of mud, while defensive positions were hardenned in anticipation of an attack. However, the landing was conducted with great success, a combination of grit and well timed areial and ship based bombardment openned the way for the army to land, and as predicted, the North Korean invasion force was crushed between the "hammer" of McAurther's landing force from Inchon, and the "anvil" of the UN forces breaking out of the Pusan Perimiter.
With North Korean forces in disarray, McAurther rolled his troops up the West side of the penninsula, crossing the 38th Parallel, and forcing retreating North Korean forces up to the Yalu river, the Korean border with China. His not too hidden agenda, and one supported by many people in the US and Korea, was to finish the war by completely defeating the North, pushing the remaining forces into China. However, this ran directly counter to the UN's goal of a policing action, which was meant to return the penninsula to the original divided political state, with the 38th parallel as the border. Also, and more foreboding, was what was seen as McAurther's desire to carry the war into China, defeating the Communist government and replacing it with a democracy. This widenning of the war was seen by Truman as too dangerous in the new nuclear world, and soon a very public dispute arose between the two. When Chinese forces, under the guise of volunteers to the North Korean cause, crossed the border in heavy numbers, events came to a head. Truman abruptly dismissed McAurther (who, although not noted often, was about to resign to run for the presidency), and replaced him with the intent on keeping the war contained to the penninsula. But events had run out of US control, as North Korean and Chinese forces had been hiding in the mountenous Eastern half of North Korea, and subsequently streamed out behind UN positions. Trapped, and facing, quite literally, seas of Chinese troops pouring in from the North, UN forces went into full retreat back down the penninsula, finally setting up defensive positions at around the 38th parallel. In the Eastern half, events were more dire, as the Marine X Corp, completely surrounded at the Chosin resevoir by several Chinese divisions, was forced to fight, through one of the coldest heaviest winters on record, to the sea for evacuation. For most of a year the battle turned into a costly battle of attrition along a single front dividing the penninsula, closely following the original 38th parallel. Each "hill" (they were called hills, but more closely resemble the worn down lower mountains of Appalachia) was fought over fiercly, taken and lost countless times with enourmous casualties on both sides. It seemed like the fighting could on indefinately, until finally a cease fire was signed in 1953. A demilitarized zone (DMZ) was set up between the North and South, along the front, which in turn closely followed the 38th parallel. While small skirmishes would occur between both sides, as well as some significant cases of intrigue and assasinations, all fighting effectively stopped at 1953.
Following the cease fire, the ROK and the US signed a joint defense treaty, establishing US bases within South Korea as well as the stationing of upwards of 40,000 US troops, further ensuring that a second North Korean invasion would not follow. With peace, attention turned towards the rebuilding of the country and the development of the economy. It should be noted that while the cease-fire stopped the hostilities, nothing substantiative was signed afterwards, up to present day. So, technically, both countries are still at war.
Industrial Modernization
1953 AD - 1988 AD
South Korea was left in little more then ruins following the Korean War, with poverty and hunger rampant. Drastic measures would be taken by the President, Syngmon Rhee, in order to bring the country as rapidly as possible into the modern era. His first moves were to consolidate power, deposing of political rivals and creating what was effectively a dictatorship. With support from the US, who was pleased by the harsh suppression of remaining Communists in the South, the recovery efforts of Korea were to follow the Japanese model. Imitating the model almost exactly, South Korea began building large numbers of commercial ships for sale and use in shipping lines. Steel production jumped as drydocks were built rapidly. Huge public works projects were started, creating road and rail arteries throughout the South. Due to general inexperience in such massive construction, many errors arose, but were quickly demolished and literally paved over, as the country was determined to continue the massive building efforts. Like Japan, the next stage in economic development was arms production, both for self use and for export. While Japan had the Korean War to fuel it's arms slaes explosion, Korea had the Vietnam War. In addition, as a signal of close ties with the US, a division of Korean troops was sent to Vietnam in 1965 to help with the anti-communist efforts (As a side note, the Korean marines have taken on an almost mythical following, with a reputation of having completely supressed all Viet-Cong activity in their zones.). Fueled by the sale of arms (mostly munitions), industrial development expanded along other lines, automobile and electronics production, for example.
The political situation, however, was very turbulant, as might be expected from such a new democracy. By 1960 the military staged a coup, taking over control of the government. However they were not to last long, as another coup was staged in 1961, with the subsequent government re-engineering itself to facilitate faster economic development. By 1963, the newly ruling government was finally officially installed, and the results of economic progress could clearly be seen, as urbanization grew by 4% annualy.
Again in 1980, yet another coup occurred, with the military once again directing rapid ecenomic development. College and university enrollment doubled under the direction of the new military government, and investment into education rose substantially. Ironically, the creation of such a large student body would contribute to the replacement of the military government with a more democratic government, as student riots spurred the call for changes. Despite human rights abuses, the continuing guidance of the economy by the government was returning amazing dividends. The economy had, in the short time of 30 years, gone from virtually nothing, to one of the top 20 in the world. And by 1988 South Korea was one of the "Four Dragons" (AKA Four Tigers) of the Asian economy, along with Taiwan, Singapore, and Hong Kong. As a cap to the amazing economic feats, Korea was host to the 1988 Summer Olympics, a giant celebration introducing the country to the world stage.
Post Olympic Korea
1988 AD - Present
Contemporary Korea has progressed even further then 1988 Korea, both in terms of economy and society. Before the Asian Financial Crisis of 1998, South Korea was the 8th largest economy in the world. Even today, despite the financial meltdown, South Korea remains the 11th largest economy in the world.
Following the 1988 Olympics, Korea has developed into a fully democratic nation, with free elections being held, and even the election of the traditional opposition to high offices including President. The economy continued it's dramatic expansion under the guidance of the government, with the Chaebols, the major industrial conglomerates, creating ever expanding branches to cover all aspects of industrial society. Even more telling of the South Korean economic might is the contiuing warming of relations between South Korea and Communist China. Attracted by possible investment and export market potential of South Korea, relations between the two have improved dramatically, despite China being the sole supporter of North Korea politically and economically. South Korea has also become an attractive export country for US companies, due to the continuing growth and relative stability of the country. One of the more attractive features of the South Korean economy for US exporters was the almost complete ban of Japanese products in South Korea, a result of still simmering tensions from the colonial annexation. However, as exposed by the financial crisis of 1998, the South Korean economy still has lingering problems.
The most basic problem with the Korean economy has been it's following of the Japan model more closely then Japan. Dramatic economic growth was directed by government beaurocracies, which meant that bank loans and investments were made without regard to market forces. The financial crisis of 1988 (referred by Koreans as "the IMF", due to the IMF bailout), exposed these weaknesses, and have lead to the current correction. Banks have been orderred to write off bad loans made in the heady 80's, and the Chaebols have begun divesting various subdivisions, refocusing on their core industries. However, ironically, the fundamental strengths of the Korean economy has lead to a quick recovery, which in turn has taken off political presure for reforms. Time will tell if the reform efforts continue.
2333 BC - 313 AD
The Chosun nation first formed from the various Tungusic tribes (a subdivision of the Ural-Altaic people) from Mongolia.
The first dynasty of note was the Tan'gun dynasty, a theocracy which ruled from Pyongyang from 2333 BC - 1122 BC. The historical and cultural accuracy our knowledge of this dynasty is still debated today. Several scholars claim this is a mythic dynasty, a story to explain the beginning of the Korean people. Others view this dynasty as a historical fact, and attribute a cultural/spiritual signifigance to it. The truth is propbably somewhere in the middle. Nonetheless, it was later usurped by the Kija Dynasty (1122 BC - 194 BC), which was founded by a Chinese scholar.
In 108 BC the Han Dynasty of China extended into North Korea, turning the North into the Lolang Province (ed. note: Lolang is the US spelling, Nangnang is the preferred Korean spelling). Chinese cultural influence thus spread into Korea, resulting in Korean adoption of a centralized beaurocracy, Confusionism, and others.
The Three Kingdoms Period
37 BC - 935 AD
While the North was occupied by China as the Lolang province, the remaining South had been subdivided by the three Han tribes. In the Southwest was the Ma Han. In the Southeast was the Pyon Han. And in the middle was the Chin Han.
In 37 BC the Koguryo invaded the North from Southern Manchuria, and formed a new Northern kingdom which competed heavily with the Lolang Province (eventually defeating them in 313 AD). With such pressure from the North, the Chin Han and Pyon Han merged, to form the Silla Dynasty in 57 BC. The Ma Han meanwhile had evolved into the Paekche (Paikje) Dynasty, and the two (Silla and Paekche) eventually allied (with possibly Japan) to defend against the Koguryo. During this turbulent time, especially around 372 AD , Buddhism and Confusionism were widely introduced to the Korean Penninsula, with colleges and Chinese classics quickly adopted.
By 660 AD the Silla, allied with the Tang Chinese, finally conquered the Paekche (despite Japanese interference on the latter's behalf), unifying the South. Again allied to the Tang Chinese, the Silla defeated the Koguryo in 668 AD, finally unifying the Korean Penninsula.
The Unified Silla adopted Confusionism, merging it with uniquely Korean Monarchy theory. In essense, high positions in administration were determined by a mix of family connections and Confusion principles. The country was divided into nine provinces, with each province run by officials loyal to the central administartion. The Central Administartion, in turn, was composed of high ranking civilian and military officials. Both Confusionism and Buddhism flourished in the relatively stable atmosphere of the Unified Silla.
Koryo Dynasty
935 AD - 1392 AD
Northern dissidents of the Silla established themselves, and led by General Wangkun formed the Koryo Dynasty in the North in 918. By 935 the Silla surrenderred, and a new capital for the Koyro Dynasty was established as Kaesung. Sweeping social changes were enacted, including the nationalization of farms, the disbanding of private armies, installation of Chinese sytle exam systems, and seperation of the government into a central aristoractic administration and a seperate military administration. During this time Buddhism was adopted as the official religion, and monks and priests enterred government ranks. One of the great Buddhist artifacts was created at this time, the 81,240 wooden block carvings of the Tripitaka. This enourmous collection of Buddhist scripture was carefully carved into wooden blocks for printing, and can still be seen today.
By 1123 the Koryo had begun to fracture into seperate rival factions. This was accelerated in part by the Mongol invasion of 1231 AD and conquest in 1270 AD. In a little known footnote to history, in 1234 bronze movable type was invented. However, this invention was never exploited by the people of the time, and it's signifigance on politics, economy, religion, and humanity in general was left for the West to discover several hundred years later. Koryo was turned into a vassel of the Khan, and the people were heavily taxed to fund the attempted invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281. Korean men were also consripted into service for the invasion attempts. Koryo remained subservient to the Mongols until 1368, when it finally broke free. However, the damage had been done, and in 1392 General Yi took over, founding the Yi dynasty and moving it's capital to Seoul.
Yi Dynasty and Japanese Invasions
1392 AD - 1598 AD
After moving the Capital to Seoul, the Yi Dynasty re-established ties with Ming Dynasty China. Neoconfusionism was established as the official religion, and Buddhism was severly persecuted. Most modern Korean Confusionism today can be traced back to this widespread establishment of Neoconfusionism.
In 1443 AD King Sae Jong (1418 AD - 1450 AD) developped Hangul, the Korean writing system (alphabet) which is the standard today. The reasons for the King's development of Hangul are somewhat in dispute. The popular theory is that the writing system was developped by a benevolent king, eager to help the populace in developping popular education and trade with China and Japan. Indeed, this view is supported in part by the great use of Hangul as a popular writing system, with the aristoracy and higher government depending upon traditional Chinese writing systems. However, another view, using research into the charcters used in Hangul and Chinese characters, holds that Hangul was developped as a research tool, designed to explore the Chinese writing system. In either case, Hangul represents a significant development, for unlike Chinese or Japanese, it is a phonetically based system, much like the english/latin alphabet. More importantly, it is extremely easy to learn and use, especially compared to the Chinese systems of the time. The net result was the development of a popular writing system, which is still in strong use today, and the mythical enshrinement of King Sae Jong (His portrait adorns the 100 won coin and the 1,000 won bill ... currency equivilent in usage to the US quarter and dollar bill).
However, the stable reign of the Yi Dynasty was not to last forever, and in 1576 AD the court split into East and West factions. This split was soon followed by the attempted Japanese invasion of China in 1592. While Japanese armies were able to defeat Korean troops on the battlefield, the navel engagements were decidedly in Korea's favor. Credited with smashing the Japanese fleets was Admiral Yi Sun Sim and his "turtle" ships. The first ironclad ships ever used in combat (predating Western use), the turtle ships were, as the name suggests, low lying ships with heavy iron plating on the top and sides of the ship. Metal spikes atop the armor plates prevented boarding, and portholes were used to fire arros and other projectiles. Admiral Yi's resounding victories were so great that he has become a mythic figure in Korean military history, still regarded as the greatest Korean military leader. However, his navel victories were not enough to hold off the Japanese, which occupied Southern Korea until they were finally driven out in 1598. The invasions didn't end until 1627, when the Manchus invaded, and Korean became a vassel state of the Ching Dynasty.
Colonial Korea
1777 AD - 1905 AD
In 1777 AD Catholicism was introduced in Korea when a Korean man, who had travelled to China and had observed Catholic missionaries, brought back the religion to his village. It would be several years before formal missionaries arrived, but already the presence of Western influence in Korea was seen as undesireable, and by the turn of the century Prince Tae Won Kun had closed the country to Westerners.
This closing was not enough to stop the Western invasion, and by 1839 the first French Catholic priest was martyred. 1866 was marked by the French bombardment of Kangwha Island, and the burning of a US ship at the Taedong river. US retaliation came in the form of the seizing of Kangwha Island [Ed. note: I believe Kangwha island is at the mouth of the Han river, downstream from the capital Seoul] in 1871 AD. And by 1876, much like China, Korea was forced to accept a lopsided trade treaty with Japan, with similer treaties signed with the US, France, Briton, Russia, and Germany.
In 1894 the Tonghak revolution began, causing great civil unrest in Korea. [Ed. note: The Tonghak revolution was much like the Boxer revolution in China; a mix of poverty, frustration, and mysticism. Followers blamed the ruling class and foreigners for their situation, and sought to violently overthrow them, believing that aided by magic items/spells/etc. they would be immune to Western weapons like the gun.] The ruling class asked China to send in troops to put down the rebellion which was growing out of control. However, the presence of Chinese troops, as well as the civil unrest, were used by Japan as an excuse to send in their own troops. The resulting war between China and Japan was finally ended in 1895 AD, capped off by the assasination of Queen Min of Korea, by the Japanese.
Fresh from their victory over China, Japanese colonial expansion continued, bumping into the other major regional player, Russia, which had been expanding their own imperialist efforts. The resulting Russo-Japanese war of 1905 AD left Japan as the only major power, free to fully exploit Korea in a mad quest for imperial glory.
Japanese Exploitation
1905 AD - 1945 AD
By 1905 AD Japan had assumed administration over Korea, which technically remained a seperate country (altough pretty much in name only). By 1910 AD even that farce was eliminated with the formal annexation of Korea by Japan, thus giving the new exansionist country its first colony. All government functions (police, fire, roads, etc.), as well as all industries, were taken over by Japanese, and Korea's economy was re-geared towards providing Japan with food and material for the expanding imperialistic efforts. Japanese became the official language, and Shintoism became the official religion. Usage of the Korean language (in print at first) was banned, and local religions were persecuted. Korean became the "Rice Bowl" of Japan, as evidenced by a dramatic increase in total rice output. However, per capita consumtion of rice fell even more dramatically. So while there was more rice then ever before, everybody but the Japanese were going hungry. Such exploitation expanded in 1937 AD, when Korea became the stragetic base for operations in the invasion of China. Korean men were conscripted to fight in the army, and Korean women were conscripted for use as sex slaves for Japanese troops. All use of the Korean language was banned outright, and all Koreans were forced to adopt new Japanese names. Punishment was severe, as evidenced by the return by Japan in the 1990's of the cremeted noses of hundreds of Korean women, which were cut off during this period. All forms of torture were used to keep the populace uner control, and the country was laid waste by the opression and exploitation. The situation was to last up to the end of the Second World War, when Korea was finally liberated by the Soviets and Americans.
[Ed note: For brevity's sake, and my own sanity, I've kept the invective set on low. However, I can't emphasize enough the sheer amount and depth of Japanese cruelty of the time. Several museums in Korea go into this with more detail. But if you need modern events for perspective, just imagine the ethnic cleansing in Kosovo, lasting for 40 years.]
Korea Divided
1945 AD - 1950 AD
The surrender of Japan in 1945 meant the liberation of Korea. American occupying forces moved into the Southern half of the penninsula, while Russian forces, who had been preparing for an invasion of Japan, occupied the Northern half. By mutal decision, Korea was divided at the 38th Parallel, and unification would follow popular elections. However, the end of World War II also meant the beginning of the Cold War, and Korea was a stragetic point neither side was willing to concede. While the US formed an interm government in the South, Russia set up a communist government in the North. Not helping matters was great disunity amongst Koreans. Due to the Japanese occupation, there was a severe talent shortage, as few Koreans had been allowed to function within the government or industry. Those that had were collaboraters, and were despised by a large segment of the populace. Disputes arose over whether to ban all former collaberators, or whether to allow them to participate as they were the only people anywhere close to qualificatied to run the beaurocracy. Other opposing groups emerged, such as Communists vs. Industrialists, Liberals vs. Conservatives, pro-China vs. pro-Soviet vs. pro-US. Needless to say, early unification efforts failed, stymied by Cold War politics and internal divisions.
By 1948 the Democractic Peoples' Republic of Korea was formed in the North, and the Republic of Korea was formed in the South. Following the formation of the government, US forces pulled out of Korea, as it ramped down overall military commitments. In January of 1950, Secretary of State Acheson made made, what appears in hindsight, rather careless statements to the Washington National Press Club declaring Korea as unimportant to US stragetic goals in Asia, effectively placing Korea outside of the US defense shield. With the green light from Washington, North Korea, with approval from Stalinist Russia, prepared for a quick invasion.
The Korean War
1950 AD - 1953 AD
The Korean War began in June of 1950, when North Korean tanks rolled across the 38th parallel, attempting to quickly unite the country by force. Unprepared, undermanned, and overwhelmed, ROK forces retreated wildly, as the US rushed what troops it had from Japan. Such efforts were mostly futile, North Korean forces outnumbering US and ROK forces by a 2-1 ratio, not including ROK's complete lack of aircraft, artillary, and serviceable tanks. In short time the South Korean army was pushed back into a small defensive perimiter around the port city of Pusan, located at the Southern tip of the penninsula. During the hostilities, the UN Security Council had convened to take up the matter of possible intervention. It was here that the Soviet Union made one of the most unusual diplomatic moves, boycotting the Security Council meeting in protest of Nationalist China having a seat instead of Communist Mainland China. With the USSR abstaining, The resolution allowing UN forces to conduct a "policing" action, restoring the penninsula back to pre-war form unexpectantly passed, and quickly US troops, with minor contingents from other Western countries, were pouring into the area. Unfortunately, the tactical and logistical situation was poor at best. Ground forces were stretched thin, and barely holding onto the "Pusan Perimeter". Troops and supplies were taking time to move from the US to staging areas in Japan, and then onwards to the battlefront. WWII General McAurther was appointed supreme commander of UN operations, and devised a brilliantly bold plan for winning the conflict.
His now famous invasion was both simple and bold. A large UN force would land behind enemy lines at Inchon, the port city serving the capital, Seoul, and turn South to attack North Korean forces. Meanwhile, a second division of UN forces would break out of the penninsula, completing the pincer action. Caught between the two armies, the North Korean invasion force would be effectively smashed. However, due to the limited number of ports capable of handling such a large invasion, combined with a treacherous beaches subject to strong tidal forces, the landing at Inchon was VERY predictable, both in location and time. Due to a gradually sloping beach that stretched for miles to sea, a miscalculation of the tides would leave the invasion force stranded in a sea of mud, while defensive positions were hardenned in anticipation of an attack. However, the landing was conducted with great success, a combination of grit and well timed areial and ship based bombardment openned the way for the army to land, and as predicted, the North Korean invasion force was crushed between the "hammer" of McAurther's landing force from Inchon, and the "anvil" of the UN forces breaking out of the Pusan Perimiter.
With North Korean forces in disarray, McAurther rolled his troops up the West side of the penninsula, crossing the 38th Parallel, and forcing retreating North Korean forces up to the Yalu river, the Korean border with China. His not too hidden agenda, and one supported by many people in the US and Korea, was to finish the war by completely defeating the North, pushing the remaining forces into China. However, this ran directly counter to the UN's goal of a policing action, which was meant to return the penninsula to the original divided political state, with the 38th parallel as the border. Also, and more foreboding, was what was seen as McAurther's desire to carry the war into China, defeating the Communist government and replacing it with a democracy. This widenning of the war was seen by Truman as too dangerous in the new nuclear world, and soon a very public dispute arose between the two. When Chinese forces, under the guise of volunteers to the North Korean cause, crossed the border in heavy numbers, events came to a head. Truman abruptly dismissed McAurther (who, although not noted often, was about to resign to run for the presidency), and replaced him with the intent on keeping the war contained to the penninsula. But events had run out of US control, as North Korean and Chinese forces had been hiding in the mountenous Eastern half of North Korea, and subsequently streamed out behind UN positions. Trapped, and facing, quite literally, seas of Chinese troops pouring in from the North, UN forces went into full retreat back down the penninsula, finally setting up defensive positions at around the 38th parallel. In the Eastern half, events were more dire, as the Marine X Corp, completely surrounded at the Chosin resevoir by several Chinese divisions, was forced to fight, through one of the coldest heaviest winters on record, to the sea for evacuation. For most of a year the battle turned into a costly battle of attrition along a single front dividing the penninsula, closely following the original 38th parallel. Each "hill" (they were called hills, but more closely resemble the worn down lower mountains of Appalachia) was fought over fiercly, taken and lost countless times with enourmous casualties on both sides. It seemed like the fighting could on indefinately, until finally a cease fire was signed in 1953. A demilitarized zone (DMZ) was set up between the North and South, along the front, which in turn closely followed the 38th parallel. While small skirmishes would occur between both sides, as well as some significant cases of intrigue and assasinations, all fighting effectively stopped at 1953.
Following the cease fire, the ROK and the US signed a joint defense treaty, establishing US bases within South Korea as well as the stationing of upwards of 40,000 US troops, further ensuring that a second North Korean invasion would not follow. With peace, attention turned towards the rebuilding of the country and the development of the economy. It should be noted that while the cease-fire stopped the hostilities, nothing substantiative was signed afterwards, up to present day. So, technically, both countries are still at war.
Industrial Modernization
1953 AD - 1988 AD
South Korea was left in little more then ruins following the Korean War, with poverty and hunger rampant. Drastic measures would be taken by the President, Syngmon Rhee, in order to bring the country as rapidly as possible into the modern era. His first moves were to consolidate power, deposing of political rivals and creating what was effectively a dictatorship. With support from the US, who was pleased by the harsh suppression of remaining Communists in the South, the recovery efforts of Korea were to follow the Japanese model. Imitating the model almost exactly, South Korea began building large numbers of commercial ships for sale and use in shipping lines. Steel production jumped as drydocks were built rapidly. Huge public works projects were started, creating road and rail arteries throughout the South. Due to general inexperience in such massive construction, many errors arose, but were quickly demolished and literally paved over, as the country was determined to continue the massive building efforts. Like Japan, the next stage in economic development was arms production, both for self use and for export. While Japan had the Korean War to fuel it's arms slaes explosion, Korea had the Vietnam War. In addition, as a signal of close ties with the US, a division of Korean troops was sent to Vietnam in 1965 to help with the anti-communist efforts (As a side note, the Korean marines have taken on an almost mythical following, with a reputation of having completely supressed all Viet-Cong activity in their zones.). Fueled by the sale of arms (mostly munitions), industrial development expanded along other lines, automobile and electronics production, for example.
The political situation, however, was very turbulant, as might be expected from such a new democracy. By 1960 the military staged a coup, taking over control of the government. However they were not to last long, as another coup was staged in 1961, with the subsequent government re-engineering itself to facilitate faster economic development. By 1963, the newly ruling government was finally officially installed, and the results of economic progress could clearly be seen, as urbanization grew by 4% annualy.
Again in 1980, yet another coup occurred, with the military once again directing rapid ecenomic development. College and university enrollment doubled under the direction of the new military government, and investment into education rose substantially. Ironically, the creation of such a large student body would contribute to the replacement of the military government with a more democratic government, as student riots spurred the call for changes. Despite human rights abuses, the continuing guidance of the economy by the government was returning amazing dividends. The economy had, in the short time of 30 years, gone from virtually nothing, to one of the top 20 in the world. And by 1988 South Korea was one of the "Four Dragons" (AKA Four Tigers) of the Asian economy, along with Taiwan, Singapore, and Hong Kong. As a cap to the amazing economic feats, Korea was host to the 1988 Summer Olympics, a giant celebration introducing the country to the world stage.
Post Olympic Korea
1988 AD - Present
Contemporary Korea has progressed even further then 1988 Korea, both in terms of economy and society. Before the Asian Financial Crisis of 1998, South Korea was the 8th largest economy in the world. Even today, despite the financial meltdown, South Korea remains the 11th largest economy in the world.
Following the 1988 Olympics, Korea has developed into a fully democratic nation, with free elections being held, and even the election of the traditional opposition to high offices including President. The economy continued it's dramatic expansion under the guidance of the government, with the Chaebols, the major industrial conglomerates, creating ever expanding branches to cover all aspects of industrial society. Even more telling of the South Korean economic might is the contiuing warming of relations between South Korea and Communist China. Attracted by possible investment and export market potential of South Korea, relations between the two have improved dramatically, despite China being the sole supporter of North Korea politically and economically. South Korea has also become an attractive export country for US companies, due to the continuing growth and relative stability of the country. One of the more attractive features of the South Korean economy for US exporters was the almost complete ban of Japanese products in South Korea, a result of still simmering tensions from the colonial annexation. However, as exposed by the financial crisis of 1998, the South Korean economy still has lingering problems.
The most basic problem with the Korean economy has been it's following of the Japan model more closely then Japan. Dramatic economic growth was directed by government beaurocracies, which meant that bank loans and investments were made without regard to market forces. The financial crisis of 1988 (referred by Koreans as "the IMF", due to the IMF bailout), exposed these weaknesses, and have lead to the current correction. Banks have been orderred to write off bad loans made in the heady 80's, and the Chaebols have begun divesting various subdivisions, refocusing on their core industries. However, ironically, the fundamental strengths of the Korean economy has lead to a quick recovery, which in turn has taken off political presure for reforms. Time will tell if the reform efforts continue.
