하버드대 글쓰기 프로그램을 20년 동안 지휘해온 낸시 소머스 교수는 본지 인터뷰에서“글을 써봐야 스스로‘질문’을 찾을 수 있고, 정해진 답이 아닌‘새로운 답’을 찾아낼 수 있다”고 말했다.

"매일 10분이라도 글 써야 생각을 하게 돼"

 

입력 : 2017.06.05 03:03

[하버드大 글쓰기 프로그램 20년간 이끈 낸시 소머스 교수]

 

하버드 입학생은 글쓰기 의무수강

수강생 73% "생각 잘 표현하게 돼"

 

- 서울대 신입생 40% 글쓰기 부족

"서로 글 읽고 첨삭하는 '동료평가'… 글쓰기 실력 향상에 중요한데 한국 학생들 안해봤다고 해 충격"

 

 

#장면1

 

서울대가 지난 2~3월 자연과학대학 신입생 253명을 대상으로 글쓰기 능력 평가를 실시한 결과 98(38.7%) 100점 만점에 70점 미만을 받았다. 전체 응시자의 평균 점수는 C학점 수준인 73.7점이었다. 시험을 주관한 서울대 기초교육원은 "응시자 65(25%)은 서울대의 글쓰기 정규 과목을 수강하기 어려울 정도로 글쓰기 능력이 부족하다"고 평가했다. 논제와 상관없는 내용을 쓰거나, 근거 없이 주장하고, 비문(非文)이 많았다는 것이다.

 

#장면2

 

미국 하버드대는 1872년부터 신입생 전원에게 '하버드 글쓰기 프로그램' 강좌를 146년간 하고 있다. 적어도 한 학기는 수강을 의무화했다. 매해 입학생 1700여명이 문·이과 전공에 관계없이 '학술적 글쓰기' 능력을 체득하는 것이다. 하버드대에 따르면, 이 수업을 들은 학생의 73% "글쓰기 능력 향상은 물론 대학 수업에 더 적극적으로 참여하게 됐다"고 했다.

 

하버드대 글쓰기 프로그램을 20년 동안 지휘해온 낸시 소머스 교수는 본지 인터뷰에서글을 써봐야 스스로질문을 찾을 수 있고, 정해진 답이 아닌새로운 답을 찾아낼 수 있다고 말했다.

하버드대 글쓰기 프로그램을 20년 동안 지휘해온 낸시 소머스 교수는 본지 인터뷰에서글을 써봐야 스스로질문을 찾을 수 있고, 정해진 답이 아닌새로운 답을 찾아낼 수 있다고 말했다. /낸시 소머스 제공

지난 20년간 하버드 글쓰기 프로그램을 이끌어온 낸시 소머스(66) 하버드대 교육대학원 교수는 지난 3일 본지와 전화 인터뷰에서 "대학 지식인은 글쓰기로 완성된다"며 한국 대학에서 글쓰기 교육을 강화해야 한다고 말했다. 그는 "강의 듣고 시험 잘 쳐서 대학 졸업할 수도 있지만 그런 사람은 평생 '학생' '관찰자' 위치를 벗어날 수 없다"면서 "졸업 후 자기 분야에서 진정한 프로가 되려면 글쓰기 능력을 길러야 한다"고 말했다.

 

소머스 교수는 하버드 학생 422명을 대상으로 글쓰기 교육이 대학교 공부에 미치는 영향을 추적 조사한 연구로 유명하다. 그의 연구에 따르면 글쓰기 교육을 받은 신입생 73% "수업에서 내 생각을 잘 표현할 수 있게 됐다"고 했고, 66% "전공과목에 관심을 갖게 됐다"고 답했다. 실제 하버드에서는 1977년 이후 사회에 진출한 40대 졸업생 1600명을 대상으로 '현재 직장에서 가장 중요한 능력은 무엇인가'라고 물었는데, 90% 이상이 '글쓰기'라고 답변했다. 소머스 교수는 "시험만 잘 보는 학생은 '정해진 답'을 찾는 데 급급하지만 글을 잘 써야 '새로운 문제'를 찾아낼 수 있다"고 말했다.

 

그는 "공대생이든, 사회대생이든 글로 논리적인 주장을 펼 줄 알아야 논문도 쓰고 연구 결과를 인정받을 수 있다"면서 "하버드뿐 아니라 대학 교육의 근간은 글쓰기가 돼야 한다"고 말했다. 모든 대학 교육은 기본적으로 글을 통해 아이디어를 주고받는 방식으로 이뤄지며, 이를 장려하기 위해 하버드는 전공과 관계없이 글쓰기 교육을 강조한다는 것이다. 그는 "처음엔 고교생 수준이었던 1학년의 글쓰기 실력이 리포트를 평균 12~16편 내면서 학기 말쯤엔 '학술인' 수준으로 향상된다"고 했다.

 

글쓰기 프로그램은 미국 대부분 대학에 도입돼 있다. 매사추세츠공대(MIT)는 과학자, 소설가 등 다양한 분야 인물들이 진행하는 글쓰기 수업을 운영한다. 예일, 컬럼비아대 역시 학부생에게 11 글쓰기 교습을 해준다. 반면 국내 대학가에선 이제서야 겨우 글쓰기 중요성을 감지하는 분위기다. 서울대는 올해 처음 치른 글쓰기 평가 결과가 좋지 않자 하버드대처럼 글쓰기를 집중적으로 가르치는 '글쓰기 지원센터' 설립을 추진하기로 했다.

 

소머스 교수는 학생들끼리 서로 글을 읽고 첨삭해주는 '동료 평가(peer edit)'가 글쓰기 실력 향상에 중요하다고 했다. "10여년 전 한국 방문 당시 고등학생들과 만날 기회가 있었어요. 학생끼리 서로의 글을 읽고 고쳐주라고 했는데 '한 번도 해본 적 없다'고 해서 놀랐지요. 동료의 글을 최대한 많이 읽어보고 자기 글에 대한 평가를 받아봐야 비로소 내 글의 단점이 무엇인지, 어떻게 개선할지를 알 수 있습니다."

 

그가 제시한 글쓰기 비법 가운데 한 가지는 "짧은 글이라도 매일 써보라"는 것이다. "하루 10분이라도 매일 글을 써야 비로소 '생각'을 하게 되지요. 어릴 때부터 짧게라도 꾸준한 읽기와 쓰기를 해온 학생이 대학에서도 글을 잘 쓰더군요."

 

 

출처 : http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2017/06/05/2017060500092.html

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[고급 영작문 연습] 영문기사 베껴 쓰기

 

수준에 맞는 짧고 재미있는 영문기사를 베껴 써보는 것은 영작에 많은 도움이 된다.
한 번 써보고 말 것이 아니라 같은 것을 몇 번씩 써 볼 수 있다면 효과는 더 클 것이다.
쓸 때는 직접 종이에다 써보는 것이 좋다. 
컴퓨터 자판으로 치지 말고.


사실 영작을 연습한다는 것은 언제나 부담스럽다.

한글 원문을 정해 놓고 규칙적으로 영작을 연습하는 것이 어디 쉬운 일인가.

필자도 오랫동안 영작에 관심을 가져왔지만 언제나 그 연습은 힘들다.

정말 하기 싫을 때는 이렇게 베껴 쓰기라도 하면서 시간을 보내는 것이다.

쉬어간다고 생각하고 끄적끄적 해보는 것이다.


그래도 그 결과는 엄청나다.

그냥 한 번 읽고 넘어가는 것과는 하늘과 땅 차이다.

그냥 읽을 때와 달리 직접 써보면 '아하 이렇게 쓰이는구나!' 하는 말이 절로 나온다.

사실 별것 아닌 표현인데도 생소하거나 다른 표현들이 널려 있다.
쉬운 문장들도 베껴 쓰다 보면 의외로 얻는 것이 많다.
그야말로 숭숭 뚫린 기초실력을 채울 수 있는 절호의 기회이다.

 

사실 기초실력이 빈틈이 없는 사람이 가장 무서운 고수이다.
특이한 문장이나 얄궂은 표현들 좀 안다고 뻐기는 사람들은 대체로 허당들이다.
그들은 대개 기초가 약하고 깊이가 없다.
아는 것이 몇 개 밖에 안되니 머리에 쉽게 떠오르고 술술 자랑한다.
조금만 깊이 들어가면 밑천은 금방 드러나지만.
빈 깡통은 소리를 아주 잘 낸다.

 

진짜 실력자는 기초가 촘촘하고 깊다.
박학 다식하여 어느 것을 특별히 자랑해야 할지 모른다.
어떤 질문에 대해서도 쉽고 자세하게 답할 수 있지만
몇 개만 꼬집어서 자랑하라면 잘 못 한다.
꽉 찬 깡통은 소리가 잘 안 난다.

 

 

최병길(Brian Choi)

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어학연수 전 영작 공부 방법

영어로 작문하는 과정은 영어를 공부하는 분야 중에서 가장 시간이 많이 걸리고 정확한 영어 지식을 습득해야지만 가능한 분야이다. 말하기(Speaking)는 문법에 상관없이 몇 개의 단어만 나열하거나 몸짓과 얼굴표정을 이용해서 상대방에게 의사 전달하는 것이 가능하지만 영어로 쓰는 것은 말하기와는 다르다.

 

영작을 잘 하기 위해서는 영어 문법에 대한 정확한 이해가 있어야 하고, 어휘력이 풍부해야 하고, 문학적인 표현능력 등 이 필요하다. 그래서 한국 사람들이 가장 취약한 분야가 영작(Writing)인 것이다.

 

어학연수 전 영어작문을 공부하는 가장 좋은 방법은 그 동안 자신이 배운 영어교재를 이용해서 영어로 작문하는 연습을 하는 것이다. 즉, 중고등학교 시절 영어시간에 배운 교재를 이용해서 영작연습을 하면 매우 효과적이다. 일단, 한 번 배운 적이 있어서 내용에 익숙하기 때문에 영작에 대한 위화감을 줄일 수 있는 이점도 있다.

 

개인적인 영어실력에 따라서 교재의 선정을 달리해야 하지만 처음에는 중학교 2학년 정도의 교재부터 시작하는 것을 권한다. 중2 영어 교재의 내용을 영어로 작문을 할 수 있다면 상당한 수준의 영작실력 소유자라고 할 수 있다.

 

하루에 한 과 정도의 영작 연습을 하면 적당한 양의 분량이 될 것이다. 그래서 3개월 정도 기간 동안 영작연습을 하면 고등학교 1학년 영어교재까지 마스터하고 어학연수를 떠나면 아마도 100% 성공하는 어학연수를 이룰 수 있을 것이다.

 

< 어학연수 전 영작 공부 방법 >

 

1. 중학교 2학년 영어 자습서를 준비한다(자신이 배운 교재가 가장 좋음)
2. 하루에 한 과씩을 연습한다.
3. 영문을 한 번 읽는다.
4. 한글 번역본을 보고 영작을 실습한다.
5. 영문을 보고 교정을 한다.
6. 교정을 한 후에 한글 번역본을 보고 다시 영작을 한다.
7. 중학교 2학년 과정이 끝나면 계속 중3, 고1 영어교재로 넘어 간다.

 

http://www.uhakadvice.com/posts/view/1849

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< 효과적인 영작 공부 >


- 효과적으로 영작실력을 높이기 위한 두가지 방법 양적 접근과 질적 접근 !!


  첫째 ! 양적 접근


   - 양적 접근은 쉽게 말해 일단 많이 쓰고 보는 공부법으로서 일기형식의 저널을 써보는 것이 아주

      좋은 방법 중 하나입니다 . 그냥 쓰기만 하는 것보다 스스로 교정하는 연습이 따르면 더욱 좋습니다.

      본인이 직접 수정해 가면서 자주하는 실수도 바로 잡고 또 어떤 점에서 계속 실수가

      발생하는지 알 수 있기 때문입니다.


http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcR3IUWyUK7u40W1WWF5roBy7UcZJiTmVUz2FbZnlCowsHdIuqDj



  둘째 ! 질적접근

    - 질적즙근은 나에게 맞는 필요한 영어가 무엇인지 정하고 그에 맞는 영어를 늘리는 연습입니다.

       영어권에서 공부를 희망하는 학생들은 연구논문용 영어로 , 영어권 나라에서의 취업을 목표로

       한다면 그 분야에 필요한 영어위주로 말이죠.

    - 영어권나라에서 자란 학생들의 경우에도 Essay 실력은 천차만별 입니다 .

       영어가 모국어라고 해서 글을 잘쓰는 것은 아니기 때문이죠.  또 스피킹을 잘하는 친구라고 해서

        라이팅 역시 띄어나다고 볼 수 없습니다. 결과적으로 영작은 끊임없는 개발과 노력이 필요합니다.

 1) Journal Entry

 - 노트를 장만하여 처음에는 매일 왼쪽 면에만 기입을 합니다 . 처음엔 쓸 내용도 적고 부실하지만

   계속 꾸준히 쓰려고 노ㅤㄹㅛㄱ하고 중요한 점은 정확하게 쓰려는 노력보다는 빨리 쓰는 연습을 해야 합니다.

   양적인 접근의 특징이라 할 수 있지요. 그리고 두달 정도 뒤부터 쓴 일기를 스스로 수정하기 시작합니다.

   그럼 예전에 적었던 영어 실력에서 놀라움을 금치 못합니다 . 많이 놀라고 많은 실수가 눈에 띌수록

   성공한 겁니다 . 아는 만큼 보이니깐요 ! 수정한 걸 오른쪽에 다시 작성해보기 시작 합니다 .

  Tip ! 본인의 글을 스스로 수정하는 것이 많은 연습이 됩니다 . 수정을 하면 자주 틀리는 것을

         교정해나가고 , 실력이 느는 것을 확인 할 수 있습니다.

http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSXLXlJDOgfpqjU9205DLciqr-syFJsndj7OBNwsS_1r9c_uyPyIA


 2) English Structure Practice

 - 영어를 잘하려면 영어를 모국어로 사용하는 사람들을 흉내내는 방법이 최선입니다 .

   한국사람들이 가장 많이 하는 실수는  한글로 된 문장을 토막내서 영어로 짜집기를 했을 때 딱히 문법

   적으로 오류는 없지만 원어민이 듣기에 어색하거나 이해되지 않는 영어가 될 수 있습니다.

   즉 " 이말을 어떻게 하지 ? " 가 아닌 " 이런 의미의 말을 영어로는 어떻게 하지 " 라고 생각하는 것이

   정확하다고 할 수 있습니다 . 그러기 위해서는 문장 구조 위주로 연습을 해야 합니다 .


   Tip ! 영작을 늘리는 최선의 방법 " 많이 쓰고 많이 의역하기 !! "

http://www.heykorean.com/HK_Club/HK_Club_board/HK_Club_View.asp?club_id=10000003&board_no=17771&list_no=182&board_type=d&item_seq=1401102&Page=1&Search=&key=&order=&by=desc

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자유 김경윤 선생의 논술칼럼-2


 



 



 

Now, Here, I


 



 



 

[역사란 무엇인가]를 쓴 E.H.카는 “역사는 과거와 현재와의 대화”라고 말하였다. 이 말은 논술에도 그대로 적용된다. 논술은 현재와의 대화이다. 논술은 바로 지금, 여기에서 나와 마주친 사건에 대한 해석과 주장이다. 이것을 잊어서는 안 된다.


 



 

제시문의 출처가 천 년이 지난 고전에서 나오더라도 마찬가지다. 제시문의 내용은 천 년을 거슬러 올라가 그것을 음미하라는 말이 아니라, 천 년 전에 쓰여진 이야기가 오늘날에도 의미가 있는 것인지를 묻는 것이다. 그것이 한국의 반대편에서 쓰여진 것이라 하더라도 그것은 한국의 반대편 상황을 알기위한 교양차원의 제시문이 아니라, 여기 한국에서 그러한 내용이 소용이 있는지를 묻는 것이다. 그것이 위대한 성인의 이야기라 하더라도, 그것은 성인을 숭배하기 위해 있는 것이 아니라 나의 생각을 드러내기 위한 도구로써 있는 것이다. 


 



 

그리하여 논술문제를 접하는 학생은 이렇게 항상 물어야 한다. 이 문제는 오늘날 이곳에서 나에게 어떤 의미가 있는가? 오늘날 이곳에 살고 있는 나는 이 문제에 어떻게 답해야 하는가?


 



 

지금의 시선으로 과거를 보아라. 여기의 상황으로 거기를 탐문하라. 나의 시선으로 남을 대하라. 과거에 머무르지 마라. 다른 곳에 한 눈 팔지 마라. 남의 이야기에 솔깃하지 마라. 과거의 찬연히 빛나던 것도 지금은 빛바랜 것일 수 있다. 그곳의 진리가 이곳에선 거짓일 수있다. 남의 달콤한 시선이 나에게 독이 될 수도 있다. 오직 지금, 여기, 나의 시선으로 세상을 바라보자.


 



 

비행기가 공중을 날기 위해서는 우선 활주로에 단단히 자신의 바퀴를 붙이고 있어야 한다. 공중에 날던 비행기가 착륙하기 위해서는 바퀴를 내리고 활주로와 강한 마찰력을 가져야 한다. 비행기가 나의 생각이라면 활주로는 나의 근거이다. 거처이다. 활주로는 지금, 여기, 바로 우리의 현실이다. 마음껏 상상의 날개를 펴라. 하지만 우리가 결국 도달할 곳은 공중이 아니라 굳건한 대지임을 잊지마라. 모든 논술문제는 바로 지금, 여기, 나의 문제이다.


 

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자유 김경윤 선생의 논술칼럼-1



 

Be Yourself!


 



 

논술을 가르치다보면 여러 종류의 학생을 만나게 된다. 그 중에서 가장 흔한 타입이 아는 것이 별로 없어서 자신은 쓸 것이 없다는 학생이다. 나는 이런 학생에게 무엇보다 이렇게 말한다. “남이 되려고 하지 말고, 너 자신이 되라!”


 



 

남의 글을 보면 그럴 듯해 보인다. 도저히 따라갈 수 없는 경지에 도달한 글을 보면 주눅이 든다. 멋진 표현과 그럴듯한 논리에 말문이 막힌다. 그러나 절망하지마라. 그것은 남의 글일 뿐이다. 내가 남의 인생을 살아줄 수 없듯이, 나는 남의 글을 쓸 수가 없다. 나는 나의 글을 쓸 뿐.


 



 

적어도 이 글을 읽고 있는 학생은 10대 중반은 넘었을 것이다. 그렇다면 자신의 삶을 한번 돌이켜보라. 인생에서 즐거웠던 일, 슬펐던 일, 감동했던 일, 절망했던 일 ……. 무수히 많은 자신만의 이야기가 넘쳐난다. 그리고 남들과는 다른 자신만의 삶은 항상 있기 마련이다. 남의 흉내를 내지 마라. 오로지 자신이 되라.


 



 

대학에서 논술을 강화한다고 한다. 이번에는 통합논술형이라 한다. 대학에서 제출한 예상문제를 보니 골치가 아프다. 그렇지, 골치가 아플 것이다. 그러나 골치가 아픈 것은 나만의 일이 아니다. 모든 수험생이 골치가 아프다. 엄살피지 마라. 위로가 되는 것은 모든 대학이 학생의 창의력과 독창력을 주된 평가의 기준으로 삼는단다. 창의력과 독창력, 별거 아니다. 자신의 생각을 솔직하게 쓰면 되는 것이다. 거기에 수사의 옷을 입히고, 논리의 뼈대를 세우는 것은 나중에 일이다. 우선, 자신의 생각을 정확히 드러내도록 하자. 긴 글이 어렵다면 짧은 글이라도 쓰자. 다섯 줄이면 어떻고 열 줄이면 어떠랴. 그냥 써보는거다.


 



 

추신 : 매 주마다 논술논제를 올린다. 논제가 어려울 수도 있다. 그렇지만 어렵다고 생각하지 마라. 아는 대로 생각나는 대로 우선은 써보자. 내공은 수없이 많은 훈련과 시련이 만들어내는 굳은 살이다. 자 수험생 여러분 파이팅! (1006.11.8)


 

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요즘 토플이니, 대학교 에세이니 해서 영어로 글을 써서 내는 일이 무척 많아졌습니다. 영어 Writing 및 에세이 때문에 고생하시는 분들을 위해 몇자 적어볼까 합니다.



원래 Writing 은 영어의 가장 마지막 단계로, 제일 어려운 부분입니다. 어휘력도 좋아야하고 문법도 맞아야하며 무엇보다 내 생각을 효과적으로 드러내야하기 때문이지요. 에세이를 쓰면서 저 나름대로 그 노하우를 만들어왔는데 저는 제 노하우로 꽤 큰 효과를 봤습니다. 한번 참고해보셔도 나쁘진 않을 듯 합니다.



1. 중복되는 단어는 피하자!



영어로 에세이를 쓸 때, 똑같은 단어를 계속 쓰는 것은 좋지 않습니다. 전체적으로 봤을 때, 똑같은 단어를 자주 쓰게 되면 너무 글이 혼잡해보이기 때문에 좋은 이미지를 주지 못합니다. 따라서 똑같은 뜻의 단어를 2~3개 정도 더 외우시는 것이 좋습니다. 특히 접속사는 쓸 일이 많기 때문에 접속사를 많이 외워두시면 좋습니다. 그리고 주어 역시 자꾸 똑같이 반복해서 쓰는 경우도 안 좋습니다. 한 에세이에 I(나) 만 30번 나오는 경우도 있는데, 그럴 경우는 분사구문 같은 것을 이용해서 처리해주시면 좋습니다. I was hungry and I ate two apples. 라고 쓰기 보다는 'I was hungry, eating two apples.' 라고 쓰시는 것이 좋습니다. If you are done, you have to finish this. 보다는 If done, you have to finish this. 이런 식으로 쓰는게 더 보기 좋다는거죠.   



※ 그러므로, 따라서 - therefore, hence, since, consequently, accordingly, so...

※ 때문에 - because (of), thanks to, due to, owing to, for, since...

※ 그러나 - but, however, still, yet, nonetheless, nevertheless, although, though, in spite of, despite...



2. 중복된 표현도 피해요!



문장을 쓸 때 어쩔 수 없이 똑같은 문장을 써야할 때가 있습니다. '일본인들은 젓가락으로 식사를 하는 경향이 있는 반면, 한국인들은 숟가락으로 식사하는 경향이 있다.' 라는 문장을 쓸 때, 'Korean people tend to have a meal with a spoon while Japanese people tend to have a meal with chopsticks.' 라고 쓸 수 있지만 이것보다는 'Korean people tend to have a meal with a spoon while Japanese people with chopsticks.' 라고 쓰는 것이 더 효과적입니다.



3. 웬만하면 because, so, and, or 같은 접속사는 문장 맨 앞에 쓰지 말아요!



물론 접속사를 맨 앞에 써도 문법적으로 틀린 것은 아니지만, 맨 앞에 접속사를 쓸 경우 썩 좋은 이미지를 주지 못합니다. 우리나라말도 '나는 공부를 한다. 왜냐하면 나는 학생이기 때문이다.' 라고 접속사를 맨 앞에 쓰는 것보다는 '나는 학생이기 때문에 공부를 한다.' 라는 표현이 더 자연스럽고 매끄러운 것과 같은 이치입니다. 따라서 because, and, so, or 을 맨 앞에 쓰는 것은 가급적 피하도록 합니다.



4. 어려운 단어는 피해야!



가끔씩 어려운 단어를 많이 써야 더 멋있고 좋은 에세이라고 생각하시는 분들이 계신데요, 절대로 아닙니다. 오히려 어려운 단어가 많을수록 에세이의 질은 떨어집니다. 에세이를 쓸 때는 독자를 먼저 생각해야합니다. 독자는 선생님일수도 있고, 학생일수도 있고, 교수일수도 있고, 그냥 할머니일수도 있습니다. 누구를 딱히 겨냥한 에세이가 아닌 이상, 남녀노소, 그리고 사회적, 지위적 위치에 관계없이 누구나 편히 읽을 수 있는 에세이어야만 합니다. 따라서 너무 어려운 단어를 많이 쓰면 좋은 글이 될 수 없습니다. SAT 단어 같은 경우는 피하는 것이 좋습니다.

(물론 너무 쉬운 단어만 써도 문제가 됩니다. 적당히 섞어가면서 쓰셔야합니다.)



5. 한국어를 그대로 번역해서 쓰지 말자!



영어 원서로 된 소설이나 책들을 많이 읽어보라는 이유가 바로 이것 때문이죠. 영어식 표현을 많이 알아야 에세이를 쓸 때 무척 도움이 됩니다. 한국인들 중에 글은 잘 쓰는데 표현이 너무 한국식이라 좋은 점수를 못 받는 사람들이 많습니다. 이런 사람들은 반드시 영어로 된 책을 많이 읽어서 영어 표현법을 익혀야합니다.



6. 관계대명사도 너무 많이 쓰면 보기 싫어요!



관계대명사를 쓰지 말라는 것은 아닙니다. 하지만 너무 많이 쓰면 정말 지저분한 에세이가 됩니다. 예를 들어 설명하자면, Tom who is my best friend likes the pen which my mother who is fifty years old gave him. 라는 문장을 쓸 때 저렇게 쓰면 너무 눈 아프고 그다지 좋은 문장으로는 절대 안 보입니다. 그래서 다음과 같이 씁니다.

Tom, my best friend, likes the pen which my mother, 50, gave him. 되게 간편하죠? 아시겠지만 주어 + be 는 생략이 가능합니다. 그걸 이용해서 간략하고 짧게 쓰도록 합니다.



7. 예제 및 통계 자료는 에세이를 쓸 때 무척 도움이 된답니다!



에세이를 쓰는 목적은 여러가지가 있지만 대부분은 읽는 사람으로 하여금 내 에세이에 호감이 가도록 만드는 것입니다. 그렇기 때문에 남들도 신용할 수 있고 믿을 수 있는 정보를 에세이에 집어넣는다면 정말 독자들로부터 애정(?)을 받는 에세이가 될 것입니다. 예를 들면, '많은 사람들은 돈이 생기면 돈을 마구 써버리는 경향이 있다. 이러한 자세는 고쳐야할 것이다.' 라고 쓰는 것도 괜찮지만, 이것보다는 '심리학에 의하면 인간은 뜻 밖의 이득이 되는 무언가가 생겼을 때 그것을 무의식적으로 사용해버리는 경향이 있다고 한다. 하지만 이러한 경향은 확실히 좋지 못하기에 반드시 고쳐야할 부분이다.' 라고 쓰는 것이 독자로 하여금 좀 더 신뢰감을 주고 확신을 줄 수 있습니다. 이것 외에도, 내 경험을 바탕으로 써도 되고 책의 내용을 인용해도 상관없습니다. 물론 속담이나 격언을 사용해도 좋구요. 객관적인 정보 및 자료, 지식을 집어넣으면 되는 것이죠.



8. 10 이하의 숫자는 영어로, 그 이상은 그냥 숫자로 표기하세요!



에세이에서 10 이하의 숫자를 쓸 때는 영어로 표기하는 것이 더 좋습니다. 'I ate 2 apples.' 보다 'I ate two epples.' 가 더 보기 좋습니다. 그리고 10이 넘어갈 때, 그 때부터는 그냥 숫자로 쓰도록 합니다. 'Maybe I did it about thousand times.' 보다는 'Maybe I did it about 1000 times.' 가 더 보기 좋은 문장입니다.



9. 수동태 표현? 기러지마요~



수동태 표현을 무리하게 너무 많이 쓸 경우에도 문제가 됩니다. 사실 수동태 표현은 정말 수동적으로 일어난 일이나 아예 수동적 표현이 숙어처럼 쓰이는 경우를 제외하고는 쓸 필요가 없습니다. I am interested in Korea. 나 He is tired because of his hard work. 또는, He was killed by a crazy murderer 와 같이 아예 수동태가 숙어처럼 쓰이는 경우 또는 수동적인 일을 써야만 하는 경우에는 어쩔 수 없이 써야겠지만 그런 것이 아님에도 불구하고 그냥 막연히 수동태를 쓰는 것은 좋지 않습니다. She finished my homework. 를 굳이 My homework was finished by her. 이라고 쓸 필요는 없다는 이야기입니다. 웬만하면 이런 식의 수동태 문장은 피하는 것이 좋습니다.



10. 가장 중요한 것, 바로 독서!



한국어를 할 줄 안다고 해서 모든 한국 사람들이 글을 잘 쓰는 것은 아닙니다. 마찬가지로, 영어 역시 할 줄 안다고 해서 영어로 된 글을 다 잘 쓰는 것이 아닙니다. 그건 원어민들도 마찬가지입니다. 그럼 어떻게? 바로 책을 많이 읽어야합니다. 책을 많이 읽은 사람들이 확실히 표현 같은 건 어색해도 글은 정말 잘 씁니다. 즉 그들은 단순히 영어로 표현을 못할 뿐이지, 글 쓰는 방법은 알고 있다는 것입니다. 그럴 경우에는 시간만 조금 더 투자하면 금방 좋은 에세이를 써 낼 수 있지만, 거꾸로, 영어는 잘하지만 독서와는 담 쌓은 사람들은 시간 조금 가지고는 턱없이 부족합니다. 아무렴 독서를 꾸준히 해온 사람을 글 쓰기에서 어떻게 쉽게 이길 수 있을까요. 그래서 독서는 닥치는대로 하는 것이 좋습니다.

출처 : 네이버 지식인

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출처: http://eduhow.tistory.com/entry/영어-쓰기의-8부-능선-관사-the-a-용법-예제

(유학생이 쓰는) 영어 쓰기의 8부능선, 관사 뛰어넘기


영어학습자료 2011/04/05 22:55
유학 4년차, 영어 쓰기가 많이 익숙해진 지금도 매번 지적받는 사항이 있으니 그것은 관사, 그중에서도 정관사와 부정관사(a / the)의 사용입니다. 영어 쓰기를 공부할 때 그냥 무턱대고 많이 쓰다보면 나아지는 부분도 있지만, 관사만큼은 유학 초기나 지금이나 별 차이가 없는 것 같습니다. 외국 친구들에게 물어보면 "그냥 감으로 아는 것이지 설명하기 힘들다"고 하니 그 역시 별로 도움이 안됩니다.  더 읽으시기 전에 관사 용법에 대한 다음 테스트를 풀어보세요. 주요 문제 몇가지에 대한 해설은 글을 읽으시면서 찾으실 수 있습니다.


관사 용법 테스트 :
http://a4esl.org/q/h/9901/cw-articles.htm
http://a4esl.org/q/h/vm/fampeople.html 

관사, 대강 쓰면 안될까?

관사야 어떻게 쓰던지 의미전달은 되니 적당히 쓰면 안되냐고 하실지도 모르겠습니다. 하지만 글로벌한 전문가로 성장하기를 원한다면 그렇게 넘길 수는 없습니다. (해외 기업 취업 관련해서는 Filldream님의 블로그를 참고하세요) 관사 사용은 너무나 빈번히 일어나므로 제대로 숙지하지 못할 경우 (특히 학계의 대부분을 차지하는 영어권 독자들에게) 글 자체에 대한 부정적인 이미지를 형성하기 때문입니다. 저의 경우, 예전에 지도교수님이나 다른 리뷰어에게 논문 Draft를 보냈을 때, 관사 실수때문에 글의 내용에 제대로 집중하기 힘들다는 말을 들은 적이 있습니다. 글의 내용에 대해 커맨트를 받아야 할 상황에서 관사 교정만 잔뜩 받은적도 있습니다.  (관련 포스팅 참조)

이처럼 사소하지만 무시할 수 없는 부분이다보니, 관사 사용에 자신이 없을 경우 작성한 글을 원어민 친구들에게 Proofreading받게 됩니다. 미국 생활 초기에는 이런 식으로 어느 정도는 해결할 수 있지만, 작성하는 글의 양이 많아질수록, 전문 분야의 글일수록 이는 점점 어려워집니다. 글을 봐줄 수 있는 친구를 항상 찾을 수 있는것도 아니고, 이메일 등 모든 글에 있어서 그렇게 할 수는 없기 때문입니다. 나중에 높은 위치에 올라 조직 전체에 메일을 보내야 할 일이 생겼을 때, 관사 실수를 남발한다면 리더로서 좋은 모습이 아닐 것입니다.

관사, 재대로 알아 보자

그래서, 관사의 용법을 한번 제대로 공부해보기로 결심을 했습니다.  사실 학교에서 혹은 문법책에서 수없이 공부했던 내용일진데, 그렇게 공부하고도 제대로 사용하지 못한다는 것은 그동안의 접근법에 무언가 문제가 있다는 반증이라고 생각했습니다. 그래서 영문/언어학 전공의 선생님들의 개인지도를 받을 수 있는 MIT Writing Center에 일주일 간격으로 수차례 약속을 잡았습니다. 저의 계획은 관사 용법에 대한 개별적인 규칙의 암기가 아닌, 일종의 사고의 틀(mental framework)을 형성해보자는 것이었습니다.
 
 Step 1 : 기본 규칙을 숙지하자

이렇게 전문가의 지도를 받기로 했지만, 명색이 박사과정 학생이 문법의 기본 규칙부터 물어볼 수는 없다고 생각해서 사전 학습을 했습니다. 우선 정관사가 '특정한'  대상을, 그리고 부정관사가 '임의의' 대상을 지칭한다는 것 정도는 아실 겁니다. (관련 포스팅 참조)  화자와 청자라는 관점에서 설명하자면, 정관사는 보통 화자와 청자 모두에게 알려진 대상을, 그리고 부정관사는 그렇지 않은 대상을 가리킵니다. 이 글을 쓰는 과정에서 관사 사용에 대한 많은 자료를 찾았는데, 그중 가장 많은 도움을 받은 자료가 관사 사용법을 요약해놓은 다음 다이어그램입니다. (이를 포함하는 원문은 여기서 보실 수 있습니다.)
 

어떤 일이든 일단 전체를 관통하는 큰 그림을 아는 것은 큰 도움이 됩니다. 관사는 (대부분) 명사 앞에 붙는 것이니 명사의 종류만 알면 이 표를 사용해 해결할 수 있는 것입니다. 예컨데 대문자로 시작하는 명사는 Proper Noun으로, 그리고 셀수없는 물질 / 추상명사는 Uncountable Noun으로 간주하고 해당 규칙을 적용하면 됩니다.

위 표에서 불분명한 부분이 General vs. Specific한 명사를 구분하는 방법입니다. 처음 등장한 단수명사앞에 a를, 그 이후에 이를 다시 지칭할 경우 the를 사용하는 것은 아시겠지만, 처음 사용되는 명사이더라도 수식어나 문맥을 통해 한정되는 경우가 있습니다. 우선 수식어의 경우 어떤 수식어가 뒤어 오느냐에 따라 한정되는 정도가 다른데,  전치사 of가 뒤에 오는 경우가 가장 한정적이며, for / in / at등 다른 전치사, that절, to부정사의 순으로 한정의 의미가 약해집니다. 전치사 of의 수식을 받는 명사에 대부분 the를 붙이는 이유입니다.
The equipments of the health club was clean in general. (of는 앞에오는 명사를 강하게 한정하기에 the를 붙입니다.)
You must sign an agreement to join the club (to는 약한 한정의 의미를 갖기에 an을 붙입니다.)


또한 General vs. Specific의 구분이 Uncountable vs. Countable을 선행한다는 것을 기억합시다. 즉, 비가산명사(water, dirt, sand)라도 구체적인 대상을 가리키는 경우 the를 앞에 붙이게 됩니다.
He drank water. (water는 특정한 물을 지칭하지는 않습니다.)
He fill the cup with some water. And he drank the water. (물질명사인 water가 앞에 사용된 특정한 water를 지칭합니다.)


때로는 General vs. Specific의 구분을 위해 해당 분야에 대한 정확한 지식을 알아야 할 때도 있습니다. 노벨상에 대한 정확한 지식이 없다면 다음 문장에서 정확한 관사를 사용하기 어려울 것입니다.
Einstein won the Novel Prize in Physics in 1921. (해당 년도의 물리학 노벨상은 단일하기에 the를 씁니다.)
Roentgen won a 1901 Novel Prize. (해당 년도의 노벨상은 여러개이니, 그중 하나를 가르키기 위해 a를 씁니다.)


Step 2 : 보조 규칙을 익히자

영어에는 이러한 기본 규칙을 보완하는 추가적인 규칙이 존재합니다. 사례를 통해 이를 알아봅시다. 우선, 고유명사가 일반명사로 사용되는 경우가 있습니다.
I want to drink a Coke. (고유명사인 Coke가 콜라 한병이라는 일반명사로 사용됩니다.)
Mother Teresa was a Roman Catholic nun. (Roman Catholic은 고유명사가 아니라, nun을 수식하는 형용사입니다.)


소유격은 정관사와 같이 쓰지 않습니다. 소유격 자체가 '한정'의 의미를 담고있기 때문이라고 합니다.
Mother Teresa received her novel Peace Prize in 1979.
Einstein is known for his theory of relativity.
Einstein is known for the theory of relativity. (소유격이 없다면 the를 써야합니다.)


이밖에도 많은 규칙이 존재합니다만, '뉴욕의사의 백신영어' 저자이신 고수민님의 글을 비롯한 온라인상의 자료를 글미에 소개하는 것으로 대신할까 합니다. 단, 문법 규칙이라는 것은 적용범위가 넓고 예외상황이 적은 경우에만 유용하다는 점을 기억합시다. 이런 의미에서 스스로 글을 쓰면서 자주 의문점을 느꼈던 규칙이 아니라면, 일일히 암기하기보다는 Step 3에서 설명하는대로 '직관'력을 키우는 것이 바람직하다는 생각입니다.


 Step 3 : 나머지는 '직관'으로 해결하자

 관사 사용이 규칙대로 된다면, 지금처럼 난제는 아니었을 겁니다.  하지만 관사 사용에는 수많은 예외 및 관용어구가 존재합니다. 이를 각각 모두 기억하는 것은 불가능에 가까울 뿐 아니라, 막상 필요할 때 제대로 활용하지 못하는 결과를 낳게 됩니다. 문법책에서 가르치는 관사 용법이 그렇게 길고 복잡한 것은 이런 예외상황을 모두 규칙으로 가르쳤기 때문이라고 생각합니다. 예컨데, 고유명사앞에 the를 붙이는 '예외상황'에 대한 다음 '규칙'을 살펴봅시다.

Use the with the proper noun (name) of a historical event, historical period, highway, building, hotel, museum, river, ocean, sea, point on a globe (Examples: the Equator or the East), desert, forest, gulf, or peninsula. Only use the with the name of a country if the name is plural, as in the Netherlands, or if it is a phrase, such as the Dominican Republic.
위에서 열거하는 열 몇가지 경우를 모두 암기하는 일은 (80년대) 수험 영어에서나 필요했을 일입니다. 실제 영어 쓰기에서는 자신의 전문분야에 대해 쓰는것이 보통일테니 위 단어를 쓸일이 많지 않을뿐더러, 어디에서나 인터넷을 사용할 수 있는 요즘은 필요할 때마다 검색을 통해 정확한 용례를 파악할 수 있기 때문입니다. 게다가 South Africa (남아공)의 경우에는 the를 앞에 붙이지 않으니, 위 규칙이 절대적인 것도 아닙니다.


또한, 앞서 설명한 '규칙'에도 적용이 애매한 사례가 종종 발생합니다. 앞서 General vs. Specific을 구분하는 규칙을 설명했지만, 종종 그 구분이 문맥을 통해 이루어지기도 합니다. 아래 문장을 살펴보면서, 밑줄친 부분에 왜 the가 필요한지 생각해봅시다. 참고로 제가 치른 온라인 테스트의 틀렸던 문제에서 발췌한 문장입니다.
Look for a health club near your house, and check out the exercise instructors and personal trainers. You should evaluate the equipment as well.

 

제가 Writing Center선생님께 물어본 결과 앞 문장에서 a health club이 등장했기에, 이 문장의 exercise instructors는 거기 소속의 사람일 것이며, 따라서 충분히 specific한 의미를 지니기 때문에 the를 써야하는 것이라고 합니다. 이처럼 of절과 같은 명확한 단서가 없는 경우에도 문맥에 따라 정관사를 사용해야 합니다. 

관사 교육에 대한 또다른 오해는 많은 경우 '하나의 정답'이 존재하는 것처럼 설명된다는 것입니다. 관사에 대한 서적에서 발췌한 다음 문장을 살펴봅시다. 책에서는 the가 정답이라고 가르치고 있지만, 나라에 따라서는 다수의 공용어가 사용되는 경우도 있을 것입니다. 그런 의미에서 a dominant native language역시 틀린 답은 아니라는 것이 제가 상담한 선생님의 말씀이었습니다.
In some countries, English is the dominant native language.

 
즉, 많은 경우 관사 사용은 옳고 그름의 문제라기보다는 '화자의 의도'를 얼마나 잘 전달하느냐의 문제라는 것입니다. 예컨대 윗 문장에서 the를 썼다면 해당 화자는 나라별 공용어는 하나라는 자신의 관점을 독자들에게 전달하는 것입니다. 이런 측면에서 관사 용법에 무작정 규칙을 적용하기보다는, 자신의 표현의도에 따라 적절한 선택을 할 수 있는 '감각'을 키우는 것이 바람직할 것입니다.

이런 이유에서 통/번역 등 영어 구사를 직업으로 하지 않는 일반인에게는 Step 2까지의 규칙을 외우는 것으로 충분하다고 생각합니다. 그리고 그 이상의 상황에 대해서는 '지식'이 아닌 '직관'을 통해 해결하는 편이 더 나을 것입니다. 좋은 영문을 많이 접함으로써 관사 사용에 대한 감각을 키우는 것입니다. 제가 상담을 받았던 선생님께서는 뉴욕타임즈 기사와 같은 좋은 영문을 '소리내서' 읽는 방법을 추천하셨습니다. 시청각을 모두 동원하여 관사의 용법을 느낌으로 익히는 것입니다. 이런 방식은 실제 네이티브 스피커들이 관사를 익히는 방법이기도 합니다.

글을 마치며

이 글에서는 영어 쓰기 완성에 있어서 가장 난제라고 할 수 있는 관사에 대해 다루어 보았습니다. 지금까지 관사 용법에 대한 필수적인 규칙을 몇가지 소개하였지만, 문법책의 구절을 외는 것 보다 '감각'을 익히는 것이 중요하다는 말씀을 드렸습니다. 우리가 영어를 처음에 접하는 것이 학교공부를 통해서이다보니, 자꾸 '공부' 마인드로 영어를 대하게 되고, 이것이 영어 학습에큰 장애가 되지 않나 합니다.

이 글을 작성하면서 온라인상의 수많은 자료를 참조했습니다. (예문의 출처를 일일히 밝히지 못한 점 죄송하게 생각합니다.) 그중 도움이 많이 되었던 글을 아래 소개합니다. 특히 관사에 관해서는 아래에도 링크한 '뉴욕의사' 고수민님 영어 포스팅을 추천합니다. '영어전문가'가 되기위한 영어학습 방법과 일반인의 영어학습 방법이 달라야 한다는 주장에 공감합니다. Filldream님의 영어 강의에도 원어민처럼 듣고 말하는데 도움이 되실 내용이 많습니다.

< 관사 사용법 가이드 >
위에 사용한 다이어그램을 포함하는 관사 사용 가이드 (영문)
'뉴욕의사'의 관사 용법 시리즈 (1편)
네이버 블로그 : 정관사 the의 용법


저는 영어 전문가도 아니고, 한국에서 태어나 중학교때 영어 공부를 시작한 평범한 유학생입니다. 많은 부분 제가 공부한 내용을 정리하기 위한 목적으로 쓴 글이지만, 저를 포함하여 관사 용법에 대해 '본능적인 공포감'을 느끼는 많은 분들께 도움이 되었으면 하는 바램입니다.

마지막으로 아래 질문에 대한 독자님들의 의견을 구할까 합니다. 댓글이나 다음 글을 통해 답변드리도록 노력하겠습니다.


-. 관사 이외에 영어 쓰기에서 어려운 부분은 무었입니까?
-. 관사 공부에 가장 도움을 받은 자료가 있다면 무엇입니까?
-. 특히 햇갈리는 관사의 용법이 있다면 무엇입니까?

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영어의 4가지 언어적 기능, 말하기(speaking), 듣기(listening), 쓰기(writing) 그리고 읽기(reading) 중에서 어느 것이 가장 중요한가라는 질문을 종종 받게 된다. 1983년부터 지금까지 17년 동안 토플, 토익, 텝스를 직강해 오고 있는 입장에서, 나는 쓰기라고 주저 없이 말하겠다. 그 이유는? 1988년의 88서울 올림픽 개최를 계기로 영어 회화 붐이 절정에 달한 이후로, 영어 회화에 대해서만큼은 조금 숨통을 트게 되었고 그 여파로 듣기 능력도 향상되어 왔다고 본다. 물론, 읽기의 중요성은 언제나 강조되는 것이라 새삼스럽게 생각해볼 필요조차 없다. 그런데, 이들 4가지 기능 중 유독 쓰기만큼은 그 중요성이 단 한번도 심각하게 고려된 바가 없었다. 90년대 후반 들어 인터넷이 등장하면서 겨우 쓰기의 중요성이 엿보이기 시작했다. 그럼에도 이 쓰기의 중요성을 절감하는 사람들은 많지 않은 것 같다.

2000년을 맞아 영어 글쓰기가 얼마나 중요한가를 확인하고 싶다면 인터넷 홈페이지를 보면 간단하다. 현재 총 130여만개에 달하는 국내 홈페이지 중에서 영문으로 작성된 곳은? 심지어 주요 신문 방송의 언론사들조차 영어 홈페이지를 마련한 곳은? 또 그들 중에서 제대로 된 '것'과 '곳'은? 미국인들에게 물어보면 분명 비극적인 대답을 들을 수밖에 없을 것이다.

영어 실력 부족으로 인한 황당한 에피소드들이 많다. 외국에서 비싼 발전 설비를 들여 오면서, 계약서의 단어 하나를 오역하여 수백 억의 국고를 날리고 국가를 망신시키기도 했다. 이처럼 간단한 오역과 오작이 주는 피해는 상상을 초월한다. 집의 대문 격인 홈페이지 초기 화면은 화려하지만, 대문 안에 가득 쌓여있는 내용물인 컨텐츠는 온갖 오역과 졸역으로 낯뜨거울 정도라서, 외국에 대한 홍보라기보다는 오히려 기업을 망치는 역효과를 자아내고 있다.

영어 번역 자격 검정 시험 ETAT(02-778-1577)를 시행하고 있는 코리아 헤럴드 산하 코리아헤럴드 번역센터의 박희선 사장은, 국내의 홈페이지들중 80∼90%가 전면적인 수술을 필요로 한다고 말한다. 국내 유명 쇼핑센터의 홈페이지에 나와 있는 영문 번역을 예로 들어보자. "패션의 흐름을 주도하는 해외 명품이 인접한 수입 잡화 층, 명품만이 가진 품격과 세련된 감각을 느낄 수 있는 매장과 대형 패스트푸드점인 A, B, C 등이 입주해 있습니다." 이 문장을 영어로 다음과 같이 옮겼다.

"The present of stores vending imported goods is expected to allow shoppers to experience the excitement of being in the vanguard of shopping for international goods at the forefront of fashion. Shoppers will be experience the 'Royal Treatment.' Additionally, Fast Food Stores will be available, such as A, B, C, etc."

이 영문은 전체적으로 한글 문장을 그대로 직역하였기에 native가 읽고 이해하기가 너무도 난해하다. 이 영문을 코리아헤럴드 번역센터(778-2028)에서 수정한 내용은 다음과 같다.

"The floor for the world's top brands leading the world's fashion industry is well-mated with other brand name products of world's best names, causing excitement among shoppers. And fast food restaurants, A, B and C, are conveniently located along with our store where you can find all kinds of household commodities."

우리에게 지금 필요한 것은 북극에서도 아이스크림을 판매할 수 있는 세련되고 설득력 있는 영문 표현이라는 것이다. 시간 없고 비용이 많이 든다고 해서 엉터리 영어 전문가에게 맡기기보다는, 차라리 한글 표기가 더 나을지도 모른다. 인터넷 영어 쓰기가 실용 영어 쓰기라면, TWE는 학습 영어 쓰기라고 볼 수 있다. TWE란 Test of Written English의 약자로, 토플 시험을 볼 때 같이 주어지는 영어 작문 시험이다. 2000년 10월부터는 기존의 paper test가 사라지고 CBT, 즉 Computer Based Test로 완전히 전환된다. 과거에는 영작문-essay라고도 부름-이 선택적이었으나, CBT제도 이후에는 essay가 필수적이 되고, 기존의 문법 파트에 배정된 점수의 절반을 essay가 차지하므로 지금 초긴장 상태에 있다. 긴장하기로는 수험생들 또는 그들을 가르치는 외국어 학원들도 마찬가지이다. 토플 시험의 경우, essay는 합격과 불합격의 갈림길로 인식되고 있다. 모두들 부들부들 떨고 있다고 해도 과언이 아니다. 왜? 영작, 즉 영어 쓰기 때문이다.

쓰기를 잘하는 간단한 요령은?

첫째, 되도록 고상한 단어보다는 자기가 알고있는 쉬운 단어로 써라. 둘째, 자신의 논리를 확실히 밝혀라. 셋째 평소에 암기한 문장을 자신의 것으로 paraphrasing 하라.

쓰기 다음으로 중요한 것은 당연히 듣기이다. 들어야 yes건 no건 말을 할 수 있지 않은가? 그런 면에서 볼 때, 듣기와 말하기 공부는 동시에 이뤄져야 한다. 그런데, 듣기 방법 중에 가장 어리석은 것은 무조건 듣는 것이다.

어떤 직장인은 집의 TV 채널을 무조건 AFKN에 맞춰놓고 그것만 듣고 있다. 어떤 학생은 무조건 영어 테입만 이어폰으로 듣고 있다. 문제는 '무조건'이라는 방법에 있다. 내용도 모르고 무조건 듣는 것은 한계성있는 찍기 시험과 같이 정말 무모하기 짝이 없다. 물론 전혀 안 듣는 것보다야 낫겠지만, 효과 면에서는 5%에 불과하다. 반면에 내용을 먼저 이해한 다음 다시 반복적으로 그 내용을 들었을 때 내 것으로 만들 수 있는 가능성은 95% 이상이다.

들어보기 전에 그 내용을 알아보는 방법으로는 받아쓰기를 따를 것이 없다. 발견된 자신의 취약점을 집중 훈련을 통해 극복할 수 있기 때문이다.

집중훈련이란 큰소리로 읽기(loud reading)를 반복하는 것이다. 단, 읽을 때 네이티브 목소리로 녹음된 테입이 없이 자신의 목소리로 아무리 우렁차게 암기해보았자 자신의 엉터리 발음에 회복불능 상태로 보다 더 확실하게 자리잡을 뿐이다. 그렇다면 몇 번? 암기할 때까지이니까, 필요하면 개인에 따라 50번, 100번까지도 해야된다. 자신이 알고 있는 영어 내용을 딸딸딸 암기하여 유사시에 자기 것으로 표현하는 것을 '입에서 영어가 술술 나온다'라고들 한다. 그러나 대다수 영어 학도들은 최소한의 노력으로 최대한의 효과를 얻으려는 도둑 심보를 갖고 있기에 못 듣고, 못 쓰고, 못 읽는 벙어리가 된다는 것이다.

우주의 섭리 하나. "영어는 자신이 노력한 양만큼만 듣고, 쓰고, 읽고, 말할 수 있게 된다." 여기에는 한치의 오차도 없다.

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학습자로서 문어체와 구어체에 대해서는
어떻게 대처해야 하는지 말씀해 주십시오.

중고급 수준의 학습자들이면 누구나 한번쯤은 이런 의문을 가져봅니다. 물론 문어체든, 구어체든 의사소통이 되기만 해도 좋겠다는 분들도 있지요. 누구나 처음에는 그런 태도를 보이다가 차츰 영어 실력이 늘게 되면 그제서야 문어체와 구어체를 구분하여 사용할 수 있는 능력이 중요하다는 것을 깨닫게 되지요.

이 문제에 대해 어떻게 대처하면 좋을까요?

문어체의 글을 쓸 일이 별로 없는 사람이라면 그냥 구어체만 들으면 되겠지요. 하지만 예를 들어 해외 무역업에 종사하는 사람이라면 문어체/ 구어체가 다 필요하겠지요. 방법은 간단합니다. 문어체는 문어체의 글을 통해 습득하고 구어체는 구어체에 노출됨으로써 익힐 수 있습니다. 회화를 잘하는 것이 목표인 사람이 AFKN 뉴스를 집중적으로 듣는다면 이는 잘못된 학습법이라고 할 수 있지요. 신문을 읽는 것도 그렇습니다. 신문의 기사는 기사체일 뿐이지 이를 회화에 쓰면 우스꽝스러워 집니다. 구어체를 글자로 써놓으면 그것이 문어체 아니냐구요? 이에 대해서는 답변을 다음의 인용으로 대신하겠습니다.

You cannot learn to speak English well from exclusively written input materials, nor to write well from spoken input materials. The languages of speech and writing are simply too different from each other for this to be possible.

(문어체 언어 자료에만 노출되면 영어를 잘 말할 수 없고, 구어체 자료에만 노출되면 잘 쓸 수가 없다. 구어체와 문어체의 언어는 그렇게 되기에는 서로 너무나 다른 언어이다)

Written language is not spoken language written down. Writing and speaking are not just alternative ways of doing the same thing; rather they are ways of doing different things.

(문어체 언어란 구어체 언어를 문자로 바꾸어 놓은 것이 아니다. 쓰는 것과 말하는 것은 양자택일의 문제가 아니라 그 둘은 각기 다른 어떤 별개의 것을 하는 방식이다)

사실 저도 미국 쪽의 사람들과 많은 의사소통을 하다보니까 e-mail을 쓰더라도 거의 구어체에 가깝게 씁니다. 그들은 격식을 차리지 않는 것을 좋아하기 때문이지요. 하지만 영국인들은 좀 달라요. 매우 격식을 차린 문어체로 편지나 e-mail을 보내오는 경우가 많지요. 내가 너무 구어체로 가볍게 써서 경박하게 보이지는 않았을까 하고 걱정이 되는 적도 종종 있답니다. 상황에 따라 문어체를 써야 할 때는 문어체를 쓸 수 있도록 평소 문어체에도 익숙해지는 훈련이 필요하지요.


출처: http://www.englishcare.com/engdb/engdb_view.asp?id_num=155

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Writing이란 무엇인가?



이번 주부터 Writing(쓰기)에 대해 살펴보기로 하겠습니다.

고교, 대학을 졸업하고도 영어로 편지 한 장 제대로 못 써서야 말이 되나요. 사실 한국 직장인들 중에 e-mail을 영어로 척척 쓸 수 있는 사람이 몇 명이나 될까요? 쓰기는 쓰지만 여러번 퇴짜를 맞고 성형수술을 수차례 거친 후에 나가는 것이 현실. 그러나 며칠 지나 다시 읽어보면 짜깁기한 글의 문제점이 여실히 나타납니다. 그렇지 않습니까?

그런데 문제는 여기서 그치지 않습니다. 2005년부터 전 세계적으로 동시에 도입될 예정인 New TOEFL 시험이 장난이 아니기 때문입니다! 지금처럼 어떤 주어진 주제에 대해 '자기 개인의 생각'을 정리해서 3-4 paragraph 짜리 essay를 쓰는 작문 시험은 사라집니다. '읽고, 들을 것 혹은 메모한 것을 토대'로 글을 써야 합니다. 미국 대학 강의실 현장을 그대로 옮겨놓은 듯한, 그런 영어 쓰기 능력을 평가합니다.

이제, 영어로 글을 쓰는 능력은 선택의 문제가 아닙니다. 이런 New TOEFL의 진화와 평가기술의 발달로 한국의 시험들도 단계적으로 진화해 갈 것이 분명합니다. 영어 학습의 목적이 의사소통 능력 향상이라고 교육 목적을 규정해 놓고 의사 소통을 위해 가장 중요한 쓰기 평가와 말하기 평가를 하지 않는다는 것은 말이 되지 않기 때문입니다.

지금까지 말하기(speaking)는 나름대로 발전이 있었습니다. 많은 교재나 학원 프로그램도 있습니다. 이에 비하면 writing은, 아직 한국에 변변한 표준 학습 프로그램 하나 없는 것이 실정입니다. 각설하고, 이번 칼럼에서는 writing에 대한 기초 상식을 제시해 보겠습니다.


1. Writing 이란?

a. 필자의 생각을 문자 기호로 옮기는 과정?
b. 필자가 문자 기호를 사용하여 자신의 메시지를 독자에게 전달하는 의사소통 과정?

아마도 많은 학습자들은 writing을 a. 정도의 의미로 생각해 왔으리라고 짐작됩니다.
writing을 a.로 보느냐, b.로 보느냐는 많은 차이를 낳습니다.

a.는 필자의 입장만 생각하는 경우이고, b.는 필자와 독자의 상호작용(writing as interaction, writing as communicating)이라고 보는 입장입니다. 쓰기를 이 둘 중 어느 것으로 보느냐에 따라 쓰기 공부를 하는 방법도 달라지게 됩니다.
이미 짐작이 갔겠지만 지금은 쓰기를 b.의 의미로 사용하고 있습니다.


2. Writing은 어떤 전략을 따라야 하나?

가령 쓰기의 정의를 a.로 생각한다면, 쓰기 공부는 어휘와 문법, 그리고 영어 구문 지식만 있으면 됩니다. 하지만 쓰기를 b.로 생각하면 다음과 같은 쓰기 전략이 필요합니다.

a. 정보를 수집하고 착안하는 단계(discovery stage)
b. 초고작성 단계(draft stage)
c. 수정단계(revising stage)
d. 편집단계(editing stage)

이들 쓰기 전략을 다음과 같이 다르게 부르기도 합니다.
a. prewriting 단계 - a 단계
b. writing 단계 - b 단계
c. postwriting 단계 - c, d 단계

쓰기란 단순히 필자의 생각을 문자부호로 옮겨 놓은 것은 아니란 것, 아시겠죠. 쓰기란 정보를 수집하여 초고를 쓰고, 이를 다시 수정하고, 편집하여, 글의 목적과 대상에 적절한 글을 완성하는 과정입니다.


3. Writing 과 Composition은 어떻게 다르나?

Writing 의 유형을 살펴보면 차이점을 쉽게 이해하실 수 있을 것 같군요.
a. Writing with composing(문장을 배열하고 조직하는 구성능력이 요구되는 작문)
편지 작성, e-mail 작성, 일기 쓰기, 연설문 작성, 교안 작성, 신문 기사 작성, essay 작성 등
b. Writing without composing(문장의 배열, 조직이 불필요한 작문)
메모 작성, shopping list 작성, 출입국 신고서 작성, 운전 면허증 신청서 등

그럼 다음은 쓰기를 잘하려면 어떤 능력이 필요한지 알아보도록 하겠습니다. 몇몇 학자들의 견해를 소개해 보지요.


4. Writing을 잘 할 수 있기 위해서는 어떤 능력이 필요하나?

Scarcella 와 Oxford라는 학자는 다음과 같이 4가지 능력이 필요하다고 말하고 있습니다.

a. 문법적 능력(grammatical competence)
문법, 구문, 어휘, 철자, 구두법 등을 바르게 사용할 수 있는 능력을 말합니다. 사실 옛날에는 쓰기란 바로 이 문법적 능력과 동의어였지요. 어쩌면 지금도 많은 사람들은 쓰기 능력을 '문법적 능력'과 동의어로 해석하고 있지는 않는지.

b. 사회언어학적 능력(sociolinguistic competence)
필자가 글의 목적, 주제, 독자에 따라 표현이나 내용을 다양화할 수 있는 능력을 말합니다. 어쩌면 이 능력이야 말로 위 a. 문법적 능력보다 더 중요한 것일 수 있습니다.

c. 담화 능력(discourse competence)
지시어(reference)의 바른 사용, 생략(ellipsis) 등을 통해 글을 일관성(coherence), 결합성(cohesion) 있게 구성할 수 있는 능력을 말합니다.

d. 전략적 능력(strategic competence)
브래인스토밍 등을 통해 아이디어를 얻고, 초고를 쓰고, 수정하는 등의 전략을 말합니다.

쓰기를 잘하기 위해서 갖출 이상의 4가지 쓰기 능력을 보면 앞으로 어떤 훈련을 많이 해야할지 짐작이 가지요.

한편, Hillocks란 학자는 학습자가 익혀야 할 것으로 다음 4가지를 제시하고 있습니다.

a. 내용에 관한 지식(knowledge of the content)
쓰려고 하는 주제에 대해 아는 것이 많아야 쓰기가 되겠지요. 한국의 역사에 대해 모르는 사람이 영어만 잘한다고 한국의 역사에 관한 글을 쓸 수는 없습니다.

b. 내용을 조직화하는 절차적 지식(procedural knowledge to organize the content)
필자의 생각을 쓰기의 목적에 맞게 배열하는데 어떤 지식이 필요하겠지요. 바로 이런 지식을 절차적 지식이라고 합니다. '서론-본론-결론'의 형식을 따르는 것도 대표적인 절차적 지식의 예가 됩니다.

c. 담화구조, 구문형태 및 쓰기 관습에 관한 지식(knowledge of discourse structures, syntactic forms, and conventions of writing)
편지를 쓸 때, essay를 쓸 때, 소설이나 시를 쓸 때 각 장르별로 글의 구성방식, 글의 모양(formatting), 사용하는 구문의 형태들이 다릅니다.
영미인들이 business letter를 쓰는 방식과 한국인들 간에 통용되는 business letter 쓰는 방식을 차이점이 있습니다. 이런 것을 아는 것도 쓰기를 잘하기 위해 꼭 필요한 지식이지요.

d. 앞 세 가지를 통합하는 절차적 지식(procedural knowledge for integrating all the other types of knowledge)

이쯤 읽고 나니까 어떤 생각들이 떠오르세요?

' 야, 쓰기 역시 만만찮군. '

그렇습니다. 쓰기는 수영이나 테니스를 배우는 것과도 흡사합니다.
하지만 단계적으로 훈련을 받으면 누구나 잘 할 수 있게 됩니다.


출처: http://www.englishcare.com/engdb/professional_view.asp?idx=55

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1. Writing의 힘은 어디서 나오는가?

표현하는 것은 이해할 수 있는 것의 1/5에도 못 미친다고 합니다. 필자의 경험으로 보면 1/10이나 될까. 다시 말해 문맥 속에서 이해할 수 있는 단어가 가령 5,000개가 된다 하더라도 자유롭게 말이나 글로 쓸 수 있는 단어는 실제로 500개 정도 밖에 안된다는 뜻이 되겠지요. 적어도 현재 대다수의 한국 영어학습자의 경우는 그럴 것으로 짐작됩니다.

이는 결국 많이 읽고, 듣지 않고서는 잘 쓸 수 없다는 것을 시사하는 것이기도 합니다.
그럼 writing의 힘은 reading/listening에서 나온다? 답은 yes and no 정도가 될 것 같습니다. Reading/listening만 많이 한다고 writing이 저절로 되는 것은 아니기 때문이지요. 세상에 공짜는 없습니다. Writing을 잘하려면 reading/listening과는 별도로 writing 훈련을 해야 합니다.

2. 읽기도 서툰데 바로 writing을 시작해도 되나?

'우선 이해활동(listening/reading)을 통해 영어에 많이 노출되라. 그리고 나서 표현활동(speaking/writing)을 하는 것이 효과적이다'란 주장은 일반적으로는 맞는 말입니다.

문제는, '많이 노출된 후'가 어느 정도 많이 노출된 후란 말인가가 되겠지요.

본 칼럼의 독자들처럼 고교, 대학을 마친 학습자들의 경우도 writing은 더 많은 이해활동(listening/reading) 뒤로 미루어야 할까요? 그렇지 않습니다. 영어의 기초가 어느 정도 되어 있으면 서툴더라도 writing을 많이 해봐야 합니다. 문법적으로 틀린 문장을 쓰는 것은 처음엔 불가피 합니다. 이를 두려워해서는 안 됩니다. 마치 영어 회화를 배울 때 틀리는 것을 겁내지 말고 용감해질 필요가 있는 것과 같은 이치라고 말할 수 있습니다.

3. Writing은 왜 그렇게 어려울까?

영작문이 어려운 이유를 다음 4가지로 정리한 학자(Erasmus 1960)가 있습니다. 퍽 공감이 갑니다. 그리고 여러분들이 앞으로 writing을 잘하기 위해서는 이 4 가지 어려움을 어떻게 극복할 수 있을까를 생각해 보시기 바랍니다.
요약하면,

(a) 언어지식의 한계,
(b) 모국어 패턴으로부터의 장애,
(c) 모국어 문체와 문화적 표현의 간섭 장애,
(d) 모국어 작문에 노출 기회 절대부족

이라고 말하고 있습니다.

[원문]
The first and most important of these is (a)his limited ability with the language he is learning. There is no way to overcome this lack except by continued intensive work. The next large problem is (b)interference in the use of the language from his own native language patterns. This is a well-known and well-described phenomenon. The interference decreases in proportion to the amount of exposure to the second language. The third large problem - and this has a direct effect on his composition style - is (c)the interference of the stylistic and cultural literary expression patterns of his native language. Another difficulty - and this one is not linguistic - is that the student may (d)have had little exposure to free composition in his native culture, making it a relatively unique experience.

위 글의 내용 중 '모국어 간섭 장애를 줄이려면 목표로 하는 외국어에 노출량을 늘려야 한다'는 내용과, 모국어 작문을 많이 읽고, 실제 써 본 경험이 중요하다는 대목은 많은 것을 시사하는 내용이라고 생각됩니다.

여러분들은 영작문을 할 때 실제적으로 다음과 같은 두 가지 문제에 직면하게 됩니다.

1) grammatical rules(문법규칙)
단어의 유의적 결합에 관한 규칙으로서, 적절한 단어를 선택하고 이를 문법적으로 맞게 배열할 때 필요한 규칙을 말합니다. 한국에서는 영작을 학습하거나 지도할 때 이 문법규칙에 지나치게 매달리는 경향이 있습니다. 실제로는 다음의 수사규칙이 더 중요합니다. 문법규칙은 서서히 맨 나중에 습득되는 것이지요.

2) rhetorical rules(수사규칙)
문장, 문단, 그리고 보다 더 큰 단위의 유의적 결합을 다루는 규칙으로서, 특정 주제(topic), 특정 독자(audience) 그리고 의사소통의 특정 목적(purpose of communication)에 맞게 글을 효과적으로 쓰기 위해 필요한 규칙을 말합니다.

이렇게 문장과 문단을 논리적이고 효과적으로 배열할 수 있는 기술은 기본적인 문법 구조를 마스터하는 것보다 글 쓰기에서 훨씬 더 큰 역할을 합니다. 문법적으로 정확한 문장을 쓸 수 있다고 해서 목적에 맞도록 글을 잘 쓸 수 있다는 것은 아닙니다. 한국의 영어 학습자나 영작을 지도하시는 선생님들께서는 바로 이 수사규칙을 연습시키는 데 더 많은 노력을 해야 합니다.


4. Writing은 어떤 순서로 배우는가?

Writing은 반드시 이런 순서로 배워야한다는 엄격한(hard and fast) 룰이 있는 것은 아니지만 그동안 대체로 Controlled writing -> Guided writing -> Free writing 순으로 학습/지도하는 것이 좋다는 점에 대해서는 많은 전문가들이 공감하고 있는 것 같습니다.

1) 통제작문(controlled writing)

학습자들이 사용해야 할 언어의 전부 또는 대부분을 제시하여 쓰기 활동을 하는 것을 말합니다. 여러분 중에 writing에 대한 경험이 전혀 없는 분이 계신다면 바로 이 통제작문부터 시작하면 마음이 아주 편합니다. 문법을 완벽히 알지 못해도 크게 틀리지 않고 쓸 수 있는 방법이니까요.

(예) 보기의 내용에서 알맞은 말을 찾아 빈칸 채우기(gap filling), 문장의 부분을 연결하여 완전한 문장 만들기(sentence-combining), 현재형 문장의 글을 과거형으로 고치기, 부정적인 내용으로 쓴 글을 긍정적인 내용으로 고치기 등.

[참고] Controlled writing may be defined as writing in which a student can not make a serious errors as long as he follows directions.

2) 유도작문(guided writing)

통제의 정도가 많이 줄어든 작문을 말합니다. 아이디어를 제시하거나 model paragraph를 제시한 다음 이를 참고하여 자신의 생각으로 작문을 하라는 것이 guided writing이라고 할 수 있습니다.

(예) 문장이나 글을 완성하기(completion), 고쳐 쓰기(reproduction), 축약하기(compression), 확대하기(expansion), 변형하기(transformation) 등

[참고] Guided writing stands as a bridge between controlled and free writing. It includes any writing for which students are given assistance such as a model to follow, a plan or outline to expand from, a partly-written version with indications of how to complete it.

3) 자유작문(free writing)

외부의 도움 없이 자기 의사를 비교적 자유롭게 표현하는 단계입니다. 그렇다고 어떤 제약도 없는 작문이란 뜻은 아닙니다. 통제의 정도가 guided writing에 비해 현격히 적다는 뜻에 가깝습니다.

[참고] Free writing should not be taken to mean that students are free to write on any topic of their choice. Rather, the students are free to express whatever ideas they have about a given topic.

앞으로 writing을 공부할 때, 혹은 writing에 관한 교재를 선정할 때 참고하시기 바랍니다.

출처: http://www.englishcare.com/engdb/professional_view.asp?idx=56

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세상 참 빨리 변하지요?

인터넷이란 것이 이렇게 모든 것을 바꿀 줄 상상이나 했나요. 최근 몇 년 동안의 변화, 정말 어지러울 정도입니다. 그것도 과장을 좀 하면 빛의 속도로! 그런데 저에겐 참 궁금한 게 하나 있답니다. 한국인들의 영어 학습 방법은 좀처럼 변하지 않는다는 것입니다. 특히 어휘와 문법 학습법이 그렇습니다.

영어 학습법에 대한 여러분의 인식이 얼마나 변했는지 한번 테스트해 보겠습니다. 괜찮겠지요?

※ 다음 내용 중 여러분의 생각에 해당되는 번호에 동그라미를 쳐보세요.

1
a. 영어 문장을 보면 문법지식을 동원하여 의미를 파악하려고 한다.
b. 영어 문장을 보면 아는 단어만 가지고 상식을 동원하여 의미를 파악하려고 한다.

2
a. 영어 구문은 먼저 암기한 다음 사용하는 것이 옳은 순서다.
b. 영어 구문은 사용(use)을 통해 익히는 것이 옳다.

3
a. 어휘나 문법을 학습할 때 독립된 단어나 독립된 문장 단위로 학습하는 것을 선호한다.
b. 어휘나 문장은 주위 문맥 속에서만 의미가 명확해지기 때문에 항상 텍스트 속에서 어휘나 문법을 학습하는 것을 선호한다.

4
a. 영어 학습의 목표는 어휘, 문법 등의 언어 지식(linguistic competence)을 향상시키는 것이다.
b. 영어 학습의 목표는 의사소통 능력(communicative competence)을 향상시키는 것이다.

5
a. 반복 학습을 통해 어휘, 문법의 정복을 중시한다.
b. 의사소통이 효과적으로 되느냐 않느냐를 중시한다.

6
a. 반복 연습(repeated drilling)이 영어 학습의 주요 수단이다.
b. 반복 연습은 보조 수단이며, 반복 사용이 영어 학습의 주요 수단이다.

7
a. 영어 발음은 원어민과 같은 수준의 발음을 목표로 한다.
b. 영어 발음은 의사소통이 될 정도의 수준을 목표로 한다.

8
a. 의사소통 활동은 많은 연습(drills and exercises)을 하고 나서 하는 것이 옳다.
b. 의사소통 활동은 영어 공부를 시작하는 시점부터 시도하는 것이 옳다.

9
a. 문자언어(reading/writing)는 소리언어(listening/speaking)를 익히고 나서 배운다.
b. 문자언어(reading/writing)는 필요하면 처음부터 배워도 무방하다.

10
a. 영어는 영어 구조(patterns)에 대한 교육을 받음으로써 배우게 된다.
b. 영어는 실제 의사소통(communication)을 통해 배우게 된다.

11
a. '언어는 습관(language is habit)'이기 때문에 처음부터 실수는 최대한 막아야 한다.
b. '언어는 창조적인 것(language is created by the individual)'이기 때문에 시행착오(trial and error)를 통해 배우는 것이다.

12
a. 문법적으로 정확한 영어(accurate language)를 사용하는 것이 일차적 목표이다.
b. 유창하고 받아들일 수 있는 영어(fluent and acceptable language)를 사용하는 것이 일차 목표이다. 문법적으로 정확한 것보다 의사소통이 바르게 되는 것이 더 중요하다.

여러분, a. b. 중 어디에 더 많은 동그라미를 쳤습니까? 아마, 대부분의 학습자들이 a 에 동그라미를 더 많이 치지 않았을까 걱정이 됩니다. 사실 b 의 방법에 더 많은 동그라미를 쳤어야 하는데...

영작 칼럼을 시작해 놓고 제가 갑자기 왜 이런 얘기를 하냐구요?
저는 이번 영작 특강이 의미가 있으려면 학습자들의 잘못된 고정관념부터 바꾸어야 한다고 생각하기 때문입니다. 가령,

' 틀리면 안돼. '

' 처음부터 정확한 영어를 써야 하는데... '

' 난 영문법이 약해서 아직 영작은 무리야 '

등의 생각을 하시는 분이 계신다면 이번 기회에 독하게 마음을 먹고 잘못된 고정관념을 깨는 시도를 해주시기 바랍니다. 앞으로 작문을 잘할 수 있기 위해서는 영어 학습방법에 대한 인식전환이 먼저 이루어져야 하기 때문입니다.

그 동안 대한민국 영어학습자들의 영어실력이 기대에 못 미친 것은 a 계열의 학습법에 매달렸기 때문인 면이 큽니다. 작문을 할 때 '이것이 문법적으로 맞는 문장인가 아닌가?' 에 신경을 쓰기 시작하면 영작을 잘 할 수도, 또한 잘 배울 수도 없습니다.

어학연수를 가보셨으면 잘 아실 것입니다. 한국학생, 일본 학생은 정확한 영어만 말하려고 하니까 말을 잘 하지 못합니다. 꿔다놓은 보리자루 같다고 하던가요? 반면 아프리카, 독일, 스위스 등에서 온 학생들은 쉴새없이 지껄입니다. 문법적으로 좀 틀리는 것은 전혀 개의치 않습니다. 여러분은 어떤 쪽에 속합니까? '말을 안했으면 안했지 문법적으로 틀린 영어는 절대 입밖에 내지 않겠다' 는 쪽, 아니면 '문법적으론 좀 틀리더라도 의사소통이 잘 되는 것이 더 중요하다'는 쪽 ?

탈(脫) 영문법, 탈(脫) 정확성! - 이것이 회화와 영작을 잘하기 위한 첫 걸음입니다.


출처: http://www.englishcare.com/engdb/professional_view.asp?idx=57

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Break from the conventional myths!
(잘못된 인식 탈출 작전)


잘못된 생각에 자신을 가두고 있는 모습, 참 안타깝지 않으세요? 하지만 현재 한국의 대부분의 영어 학습자들이 이런 상태에 있고 저는 이분들의 구출 작전을 펴고 있는 중입니다. 특히 writing 학습법에 있어서는 그 잘못된 인식(myth)의 뿌리가 너무 깊고, 넓게 퍼져 있습니다. 이번 칼럼에서는 이런 인식으로부터 학습자들을 구출하기 위해 다음 4가지 질문에 대한 답을 함께 생각해보도록 하겠습니다.

Q1. Writing을 잘 하기 위해서는 가장 기본이 영문법 아닌가요?

A1. 지난 칼럼에서 탈(脫)영문법, 탈(脫)정확성을 강조했지만 영문법 귀신은 여전히 한국 영어학습자들 뇌리에서 희열을 느끼며 살고 있는 것 같습니다. 한국의 영어 학습자들을 꼼짝못하게 사로잡고 있는 이 영문법 귀신 - 몰아내기란 정말 힘드군요. 천도제(天道際)라도 지내면 나갈런지...

몇 년 전의 일입니다. 한 낮에 제게 급한 전화가 걸려왔습니다.

"아빠, 여기 어학연수 장난 아니야. 나 영작 한 번도 안 해봤는데 에세이를 쓰라는 거야. 써볼라니까 한국에서 배운 영문법은 전혀 도움이 안 돼"

내심 '그럴 줄 알았지...' 하면서 하던 일을 중단하고 전화로 잘 안 되는 부분을 대충 도와준 적이 있습니다.

여러분의 뇌리에 꼭꼭 숨어있을 '영작문 악령'을 몰아내기 위해 다음 글을 함께 읽어볼까요. 필자가 여러 책에서 인용한 것입니다. 진리는 아니라도 저명한 전문가들의 주장이니까 참고하는 것도 나쁘지 않을 것 같군요.

It is through attention to meaning, and not just form, that language - and writing - improve.
(언어 그리고 writing이 향상되는 것은 의미에 대한 주목을 통해서며 형식(=문법)에 대한 주목을 통해서가 아니다)

Focusing on language errors in writing improves neither grammatical accuracy nor writing fluency.
(writing을 할 때 문법 등의 오류에 초점을 맞추는 것은 문법의 정확성 뿐만 아니라 writing의 유창성을 향상시키는 데도 도움이 안 된다)

No difference in writing gains when traditional grammar, transformational, and no grammar study compared.
(전통적 문법 지도, 변형생성문법 지도, 그리고 문법지도를 하지 않은 경우, 이 3가지를 비교했을 때 학습자들의 writing 실력 향상에 차이가 없었다)

...understanding the operation of the grammar, observing its functioning, or practicing the effective use of it in exercises will not ensure that the student can use it efficiently in writing.

(문법을 어떻게 사용되는지 이해하고, 문법의 기능에 주목하거나 연습문제 풀이를 통해 효과적인 사용법을 연습한다고 해서 학습자가 그 문법을 writing을 할 때 잘 사용할 수 있다는 것을 보장하지 않을 것이다)

그럼 이찬승 선생님은 영문법과는 담을 쌓으란 말씀입니까? 아, 그런 것은 아닙니다. 문법도 중요하지요. 문제는 writing을 위한 문법은 어떻게 익히고 어떻게 적용하는가입니다. 이 점은 다음에 다루기로 하고 Q1.에 대한 대답은 다음 영문을 소개하는 것으로 끝을 맺겠습니다.

Writing is far from being a simple matter of transcribing language into written symbols: it is a thinking process in its own right. It demands conscious intellectual effort, which usually has to be sustained over a considerable period of time. Furthermore, precisely because cognitive skills are involved, proficiency in language does not, of itself, make writing easier.

이 글의 골자는 writing이란 것이 머릿속에 떠오르는 생각을 문자로 바꾸는 차원의 것은 절대 아니란 것을 강조하고 있습니다. 특강 (1)에서 소개한 내용을 다른 말로 표현한 것이라고 할 수 있지요. 특히 마지막 문장 "언어지식(문법, 어휘, 구문 등)이 유창하다고 저절로 writing을 쉽게 할 수 있는 것은 아니다"의 의미를 잘 음미해 주시기 바랍니다.

Q2 Writing을 하기 위한 영문법 학습은 reading/listening을 위한 영문법 학습과 달라야 합니까?

A2 그렇습니다. 이해를 위한 영문법 학습과 표현(speaking/writing)을 위한 영문법 학습은 당연히 달라야 합니다.

"이해를 위한 영문법은 형식(form) 중심으로, 표현을 위한 영문법은 의미(meaning, notion) 중심으로 학습을 하는 것이 좋습니다"

라고만 짧게 답변을 드리겠습니다.
여기서 '형식 중심'이란 지금 한국의 대부분의 영문법 책의 서술 형식(문의 5형식, 준동사, 시제, 구, 절 등)을 떠올리면 됩니다. 한편 '의미중심'이란 "제안하기, 초대하기, 길묻기 등"으로 분류하고 영문법은 이런 기능(function)을 나타내는 영어문장 속에 숨겨놓은 것을 말합니다. 지금 중고교 영어 교과서가 바로 의미·기능 중심으로 되어 있습니다. 의사소통이란 '의미'의 전달이고 언어 본연의 '기능'입니다. 의미전달을 위한 writing을 위해서는 의미·기능 중심으로 영문법을 학습하는 것이 더 효과적인 것은 당연한 일 아닐까요.

Q3. 우선 문장 단위로 영작이 되어야 긴 글도 쓸 수 있는 것 아닙니까?

A3. 꼭 그렇지는 않습니다. 이 질문 역시 한국의 영어 학습자들의 뇌리에 단단히 박힌 고정관념이라고 말씀드리고 싶습니다. '문장 단위 영작'이란 뭐지요? 결국 문법적으로 맞는 문장을 만드는 것 아니겠어요. 탈(脫)정확성! 아무리 영문법 즉 정확성을 먼저 배워도 정확성은 조금씩 서서히 나중에 습득되는 것이란 점을 누차 말씀드린 바 있습니다.

사람은 한꺼번에 두 가지 일을 잘 못하게 되어있습니다. TV를 보면서 공부도 잘 된다면 얼마나 좋겠어요. Writing을 할 때는 내용 구성에 집중해야 합니다. 문장이 문법에 맞느냐는 내용 구성에 비해 그렇게 중요하지 않습니다. 3인칭 단수에 -s를 붙이지 않는다고 의미전달에 지장이 있나요. 현재완료를 쓸 곳에 과거형을 쓴다고 문제가 될까요. 문맥(context) 이라는 것이 있고 읽는 사람의 상식이란 것이 있기 때문에 의미전달에는 거의 지장이 없습니다.

문법적인 문장을 쓸 수 있는 능력은 문법학습을 통해서라기보다는 문법적으로 바른 문장을 많이, 그리고 지속적으로 읽고, 들음으로써 생기는 것이라고 생각하십시오. 마치 부시 대통령이 영문법을 배우지 않았지만(?) 영문법에 맞게 말을 하고 글을 쓸 수 있듯이. 이를 'from whole to part' 방식이라고도 합니다. 전체 즉 text 단위로 글을 쓸 수 있게 된 다음 문장 단위에 신경을 쓰는 것이 바른 학습 순서라는 뜻입니다. 'from part to whole'은 한국인들이 하루 빨리 버려야 할 외국어 학습법 패러다임입니다.

필자의 주장에 일부 공감은 하지만 여전히 문장 단위 영작을 잘하고 싶은 분도 많으실 것 같습니다. 좋습니다. 꼭 그렇게 공부하고 싶으면 하셔야지요. 그런 공부 방식의 장점도 있으니까요. 이때는 영어에서 자주 쓰이는 기본적인 영어구문(basic sentence patterns)을 충실히 익히는 것이 좋습니다.

Q4. Writing을 빨리 잘하고 싶은데 어떻게 시작해야죠?

A4. 간단히 대답할 수 있는 질문은 아닙니다. 학습자의 현재 언어 능력 수준, writing의 목적 등에 따라 학습법도 달라지기 때문이죠. 다만 다음과 같은 말씀은 자신있게 드릴 수 있습니다.

"질보다 양(Quality before Quality)"

이는 많이 쓰면 저절로 잘 쓰게 된다는 뜻으로 해석하셔도 좋습니다. 물론 영어 실력이 극히 초급인 사람은 쓸 수가 없겠지요. 이런 분들은 writing을 시도하기 전에 우선 읽고, 듣기 즉 input 작업부터 하셔야 합니다.


출처: http://www.englishcare.com/engdb/professional_view.asp?idx=58

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어떻게 writing을 해야 잘하는 걸까?


문법적으로 틀리지 않고 다양한 어휘를 바르게 사용한 영작문?

언뜻 생각하면 '이 정도만 해도 80점은 주겠지...' 하고 생각하기 쉽습니다. 그러나 정말 그럴까요? Writing의 목적에 따라 중요도는 달라질 수 있지만 일반적으로는 다음의 순서로 중요합니다.

1순위> Content (내용)

-글의 테마 (thesis statement)
-테마와 관련된 글쓴이의 생각 (related ideas)
-경험, 예, 사실, 견해 등을 통해 생각을 전개하는 방식
(development of ideas through personal experience, illustration, facts, opinions)
-묘사, 원인/결과, 비교/대조 등의 수사적 기법의 사용
(use of description, cause/effect, comparison/contrast)
-일관된 초점의 유지 (consistent focus)

2순위> Organization (구성)

-매끄러운 도입 (effectiveness of introduction)
-논리적 흐름 (logical sequence of ideas)
-결론 (conclusion)
-적당한 길이(appropriate length)

3순위> Discourse (담화의 유기성)
-단락의 주제문 (topic sentences)
-단락의 통일성 (paragraph unity)
-연결 (transitions)
-담화표지 (discourse markers: oh, well, I mean etc.)
-문법적/어휘적으로 자연스러운 연결 (cohesion)
-수사적 관습 (rhetorical conventions)
-지시관계 (reference)
-글의 유창함(fluency)
-글의 경제성(economy)
-변화(variation)

4순위> Syntax (문법)

5순위> Vocabulary (어휘)

6순위> Mechanics
-철자(spelling)
-구두점(punctuation)
-참조처의 인용(citation of references)
-깔끔한 편집(neatness and appearance)

이상의 내용을 보고 난 소감은 어떻습니까? 이것을 염두에 두시면 앞으로 writing을 무엇부터 어떤 것에 중점을 두고 훈련해야 할지 짐작이 가시지요? 더불어 Writing의 중요도에서 순서가 가장 낮은 것이 어떤 것인지도 아시겠지요?

그 중요도에 있어서 상대적으로 각각 4순위와 5순위를 차지하는 문법과 어휘에서 틀린 것만 수정해주는 방식의 writing 지도를 받고 계시는 분이 계시다면 다시 생각해 보시는 것이 좋습니다.

그럼, 어떻게 writing 공부를 해야하는지는 다음에 단계적으로 소개드리기로 하겠습니다.

다음은 TOEFL essay의 평가기준입니다. 참고하시기 바랍니다.

[6점]
Demonstrates clear competence in writing on both the rhetorical and syntactic levels, though it may have occasional errors.
A paper in this category
-- effectively addresses the writing task
-- is well organized and well developed
-- uses clearly appropriate details to support a thesis or illustrate ideas
-- displays consistent facility in the use of language
-- demonstrates syntactic variety and appropriate word choice

[5점]
Demonstrates competence in writing on both the rhetorical and syntactic levels, though it will probably have occasional errors.
A paper in this category

-- may address some parts of the task more effectively than others
-- is generally well organized and developed
-- uses details to support a thesis or illustrate an idea
-- displays facility in the use of language
-- demonstrates some syntactic variety and range of vocabulary

[4점]
Demonstrates minimal competence in writing on both the rhetorical and syntactic levels.
A paper in this category

-- addresses the writing topic adequately but may slight parts of the task
-- is adequately organized and developed
-- uses some details to support a thesis or illustrate an idea
-- demonstrates adequate but possibly inconsistent facility with syntax
and usage
-- may contain some errors that occasionally obscure meaning

[3점]
Demonstrates some developing competence in writing, but it remains flawed on either the rhetorical or syntactic level, or both.
A paper in this category may reveal one or more of the following
weaknesses:

-- inadequate organization or development
-- inappropriate or insufficient details to support or illustrate
generalizations
-- a noticeably inappropriate choice of words or word forms
-- an accumulation of errors in sentence structure and/or usage

[2점]
Suggests incompetence in writing.
A paper in this category is seriously flawed by one or more of the
following weaknesses:

-- serious disorganization or underdevelopment
-- little or no detail, or irrelevant specifics
-- serious and frequent errors in sentence structure or usage
-- serious problems with focus

[1점]
Demonstrates incompetence in writing.
A paper in this category

-- may be incoherent
-- may be undeveloped
-- may contain severe and persistent writing errors



출처: http://www.englishcare.com/engdb/professional_view.asp?idx=59

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" 영작문, 그 비결은 무엇일까? "


누군가 필자에게 위와 같은 질문을 던지면 저는 다음과 같은 조언을 해주고 싶습니다.

비결1> 많이 써 보십시오.

이것이 writing의 최대 비결입니다. 적어도 중학교 수준의 영어를 공부한 학습자들이라면 무조건 써보는 일부터 시작해야 합니다. 기술, 형식 그리고 정확성은 나중의 문제입니다. 써보지 않은 사람에게 아무리 좋은 기술과 요령을 설명해도 소용이 없습니다. 일단 대뇌 속에서 잠자고 있는 영어 어휘/구문/표현들을 정기적으로 꺼내는(output) 작업을 정기적으로 해야 합니다.

" 무엇을, 어떻게 쓰냐구요? "

쓸거리는 수없이 많습니다.
일기를 영어로 쓸 수도 있고,
수첩에 메모를 영어로 하는 습관을 들이는 것도 좋습니다.
그리고 허물없는 친구에게는 가끔씩 영어로 메일을 보내 보세요.
수업 중에 영어로 노트를 하는 것도 적극 권합니다.
이런 것조차 잘 안 되면, 영어로 읽은 글 중에서 나중에 영작할 때 유용할 것 같다고 생각되는 표현들을 수첩에 기록해두고 복습하는 습관을 들여보세요.
필자의 경험상 이것도 매우 효과적인 방법이었습니다.

Writing의 비결은 많이 써보는 것! 어학연수 가서 에세이를 매주 한 편 씩 써본 학습자는 저의 조언에 공감하실 겁니다. 저의 비결 한 가지 알려드릴까요? 저는 운전을 하거나, 누굴 기다리는 시간이면 떠오르는 생각을 머릿속에라도 영어로 종종 써 봅니다.

"Upon arriving at the office, I should check the e-mails to see if there are mails that I haven't answered yet. ... Oh, come to think of it, I have one that I have forgotten to answer; a mail from ALAK president ..."

처럼 말입니다. 이 때 영어가 정확한지에 대해서는 전혀 신경을 쓰지 않습니다. 여러분도 그렇게 해보세요. 생각나지 않는 단어는 우리말로 하고, 아는 만큼만 영어로 쓰면 됩니다.

비결2> 많이 읽으십시오.

Reading과 Writing의 관련성에 관한 연구를 한 전문가들이 있습니다.
결론은, 'writing을 잘하기 위해서는 reading을 많이 해야한다'는 것입니다.
당연한 일이지요. 많이 읽으면 영어의 어휘/구문/표현들이 어떻게 사용되는지 간접적으로 배우게 되니까요.

일단 읽으면, 문자언어의 시각인상들이 대뇌 신경회로에 흔적을 남기게 됩니다. 가령,

'Clearly, students learn to write in part by carefully observing what is already written.'

라는 문장을 읽으면서 다음의 의미단락들이 대뇌신경회로에 저장되기 시작합니다.

-learn to write (쓰는 법을 배우다)
-in part (부분적으로)
-by observing (관찰함으로써)
-what is already written (이미 써진 것)

필자가 일본인 한 분과 key pal을 한 적이 있었는데 이 분이 영작을 얼마나 잘하던지 놀란 적이 있습니다. TOEIC 700 점에 도전하겠다는 분이 자신의 생각을 그렇게 간결하게 표현해 낼 수 있는 것이 믿어지지 않았습니다. 알고 보니 Japan Times의 칼럼을 매일 1-2개씩 정독하면서 거기서 읽은 어휘/구문/표현 등을 활용해 본 덕분이라고 하더군요.

제가 언젠가 소개드린, 'Dropping grammar and adding reading improves writing' 라는 말 잊지 않으셨지요.

비결3> Pre-writing -> writing -> post-writing 과정을 거치십시오.

Writing 특강1에서 말씀드린 바 있습니다.
쓰기 전에 planning time을 갖는 것은 매우 중요합니다. Planning을 위해서 brainstorming과정을 짧게라도 꼭 가지기를 권합니다. 그리고 쓴 것을 여러 차례 고치고 개선하는 작업 즉 post-writing을 하셔야 합니다.
운동할 때 준비체조 충분히 하는 사람들 많지 않듯이 writing에 들어가기 전에 생각을 끄집어내서 무엇을 쓸 것인가에 대해 생각해보는 학습자가 많지 않은 것 같아요. 그래선 writing이 꼬이게 되고 결국은 시간도 더 많이 걸리게 되는것입니다.
필자는 옛날에는 e-mail을 쓰자마자 보내곤 했었는데 요즘은 꼭 editing/proof reading을 합니다. 그리고 철자 확인도 하고...Editing을 여러 차례 하면 할수록 글이 좋아집니다.

비결4> Paraphrasing 스킬을 익히십시오.

앞으로 New TOEFL writing 시험에서도 이 점을 매우 중요시한다고 하더군요.
paraphrasing 이란, 글을 쓸 때 동일한 개념을 다르게 표현할 수 있는 능력을 말합니다.
가령, 자신이 brainstorming을 통해 기록한 ideas 중에, '불필요한 것을 지운다' 고 할 때, 한 번은 'eliminate'를 썼다면 그 다음에는 'cross out'을 쓸 수 있어야 합니다.

Brainstorming을 할 때는 철자나 문법이 틀리는 것에는 전혀 개의치 말아야 합니다. 이와 관련된 표현으로 앞에서,
Do not worry about your spelling and grammar. 라고 썼다면 뒤에서는,
Do not be concerned about spelling and grammar. 라고 바꿔 쓸 수 있겠지요.

또 brainstorming을 할 때는 자신이 쓴 내용을 평가하지 않는 것이 중요합니다.
이때도 한 번은,
Do not evaluate your ideas. 라고 썼다면 그 다음 번에는,
Do not judge your ideas. 라고 바꿔서 표현하면 평가자로부터 더 좋은 점수를 받을 수 있습니다.

이런 paraphrasing을 잘 하기 위해서는 평소 많은 글을 읽으면서 동일 혹은 유사표현을 기록해 두는 습관을 들이는 것도 중요합니다.

비결5> 반드시 feedback을 받으십시오.

필자가 대학을 갓 졸업하고 무역회사에 취직했을 시절에 있었던 일입니다.
수출 상품의 가격 조건에 관해 telex를 보냈는데(그 당시는 e-mail이란 것이 없었지요), 나중에 내보낸 telex copy를 telex실 여직원으로부터 받아 보니까 중요한 숫자 하나가 틀려있었던 겁니다. Buyer에게 사과를 하고 바로잡기는 했지만 그냥 지나쳤더라면 반값에 팔 뻔했었지요.

필자는 그 이후 모든 편지나 글은 발송하기 전에 반드시 옆 사람(부하든 상사든)에게 한 번 읽어달라고 합니다. 글의 요점은 명확한지, 표현을 개선할 부분은 없는지 물어보는 것이지요. 그러면 필자가 발견하지 못한 고칠 곳을 반드시 찾아내 줍니다.

출처: http://www.englishcare.com/engdb/professional_view.asp?idx=60

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" Writing 초보, 첫 발을 어떻게 떼면 좋을까? "


많이 써보는 것이 writing의 비결이란 것에는 공감을 하면서도 어휘/문법 다 약한데 무엇에 대해 어떻게 쓸지 막막하기만 하다는 분이 많습니다. 이런 분들을 위해 몇 가지 효과적인 방법을 소개해 드리겠습니다.

방법1> free-writing

말 그대로 자유롭게 쓰는 방법 중의 하나입니다. 우선 자신이 관심있는 topic을 하나 정합니다. '등교'나 '출근'을 주제로 해도 좋고 아니면 이번 여름의 '바캉스 계획'도 좋은 topic이 될 수 있습니다. 그 다음은 다음과 같은 방법을 따릅니다.

a. 약 10분간 글을 쓴다. 가능한 빠른 속도로 쓴다. 어떤 경우에도 도중에 멈추지 않는다.
b. 마음 속에 떠오르는 것은 무엇이든 쓴다.
c. 쓴 내용이 의미가 있든 사실과 다르든 상관하지 않는다.
d. 철자와 문법이 틀리는 것에 대해서도 전혀 신경쓰지 않는다.
e. 쓸 내용이 다 떨어져도 10분이 될 때까지는 무엇이든 마음 속에 떠오르는 것을 계속 쓴다.

이 free-writing은 의외로 효과가 좋은 훈련입니다. 지금까지 무엇을 쓰려면 단어, 문법, 형식, 내용 등 신경 쓰이는 것이 한 두 가지가 아니었습니다. 이런 것이 쓰는 것에 대해 두려움을 갖게 합니다. 당장 한번 실험해 보세요. 기대 이상의 작문을 해내는 경우가 많습니다. 10분이 부담스러우면 5 minute-writing을 먼저 해보세요. 이 free-writing을 계속 연습하면 문법뿐만 아니라 글의 구성도 점진적으로 향상됩니다.

방법2> turning words into grammar

어떤 사진이나 그림 혹은 만화 한 컷 어느 것 하나를 정합니다. 그리고 다음과 같은 절차를 밟습니다.

a. 그림을 보고 생각나는 어휘나 구를 적는다.
b. 적은 어휘나 구를 문법을 적용하여 문장으로 만들어 본다. 이때 문법적으로 틀리는 것에 대해서는 신경쓰지 않는다.
c. 이런 문장들을 조금씩 변형하며 짧은 글을 만들어 본다.

우선 그림이나 사진을 보면 관련된 단어나 문장이 저절로 떠오르게 됩니다. 이를 그냥 백지 위에 쓰면 됩니다. 무엇을 쓸까하고 고민할 필요가 전혀 없는 훈련방식입니다. 처음엔 그냥 어휘를 생각해 내고, 그 다음에는 그 어휘를 포함한 구(phrase)를 적어보고, 나중에는 문장, 마지막으로 그 그림과 관련된 글을 써보는 방식입니다. 어휘, 문법, 글의 구성을 한 가지씩 단계적으로 해결하기 때문에 부담이 되지 않는 다는 것이 이 훈련법의 큰 장점입니다.

방법3> key word로 글 재구성하기

이는 짧은 글을 읽고 그 글을 구성하는 key word 들을 메모합니다. 그리고는 글을 덮은 다음 그 key word만으로 원 글을 다시 구성해 보는 방법입니다. 이때 원 글을 그대로 회상하려고 하지말고 자기 자신의 언어를 사용하여 글을 재구성해보는 것이 좋습니다. 재구성한 글의 의미가 원문의 내용과 차이가 많이 날 때는 원문을 빨리 다시 읽고 다시 써보는 것도 좋습니다.

방법4> dicto-com

이는 짧은 글을 듣고 이를 원문에 가깝게 글을 재구성해보는 방법입니다. 위 방법3과 매우 유사하지만 들은 내용을 그대로 재구성해본다는 것이 차이점입니다. 원문에 사용된 단어나 문장의 패턴이 생각나지 않을 때는 자기 자신의 언어를 사용할 수 있습니다. 원래 dicto-com은 원문에 사용된 문법 패턴을 똑 같이 재생해봄으로써 특정 문법 패턴을 익히기 위해서 고안된 방법입니다.

이것으로 writing 특강을 마치겠습니다.
많은 분들이 특히 힘겹다고 느끼는 Writing, 제가 권해드리는 방법들이 여러분께 도움이 되었길 바랍니다.

출처: http://www.englishcare.com/engdb/professional_view.asp?idx=61

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<특집>영어 전쟁 / “영어 겁내면 안돼요”;

영국문화원 영어강사 마이클 럼버씨…

제1원칙이 쉬운 영어 쓰기




{한국처럼 영어 문화에 대한 접촉은 부족하면서도, 영어공부 열기가 대단한 곳도 없습니다.}

영국문화원 언어교육센터의 주임강사 마이클 럼버씨(39·Michael Lumber). 영어강사 14년 경력인 그가 한국을 방문한 것은지난 95년 1월이다. 그는 영국 엑섹스 대학에서 철학과 정치학을 전공했으나 여행이 좋아 영어강사 자격증(RSA)을 취득했다. 한국에 오기 전 그는 스페인 네덜란드 태국 영국에서 영어를 가르쳤다. 처음 한국에 도착했을때 왜 새벽부터 어학학원 앞에 사람들이 줄을 서는지 이해하지 못했다.

영국문화원 언어교육센터만 해도 96년 상반기 등록자가 3천여명, 대기자가 5백여명에 이를 정도.

{직장 승진을 위해 영어공부하는 것은 유럽이나 다른 동남아국가도 마찬가지죠.}.

외국어를 즐기며 배우는 게 아니라 고통(suffer)이나 강압(pressure)으로 여기는 게 문제라고 그는 말한다.

{영어로 말하는 것을 겁내면 안돼요. 사실 한국인들은 태국이나 일본인들에 비해 더 적극적인 편입니다. 문제는 얼마만큼 실생활에 응용하느냐는 거죠.}

그는 수영을 배울 때 물에 몸을 던지듯 과감해지라고 한다. 그는 {한국의 콩글리시처럼 싱가폴엔 싱글리시가 있다}며 {모국어가 아닌이상 처음엔 어색한 영어를 하는 게 당연하다}고 말한다. 럼버씨 눈에 비친 한국사람들은 특히 발음에 관심이 많다.

{그보다 한국인들에게 중요한 것은 적절한 어휘 선택과 스몰 워드(SmallWords)의 올바른 쓰임입니다.} 유창한 영어를 쓰는 한국인들도 조동사나 전치사를 대충 하나로 통일해 써버린다는 것. 그는 I've transfered, I amtransfered, I had transfered를 구분할수 있는 사람들이 모두 I transfer로 써버리는 것을 안타까워한다.

그의 영어교육 제1원칙은 쉬운 영어 쓰기.

영국인도 모르는 어려운 단어를 엉뚱한데 쓰는 경우가 많다는 것이다. {여자친구 만나는 것에 see나date란 단어를 쓰면 되는데 사업에서나 쓰이는 appointment란 단어를 쓰더군요.}

{영어 습득의 지름길은 현지교육이지만 그렇지 못할 땐 스스로 환경을 만들 수밖에 없죠. 영자신문이나 교과서도 좋지만 만화, 영화 등 재미있는 것부터 우선 많이 접해야 합니다.}.

그에게 영어공부의 비법을 물어보면 {한 문장 안에서 각 단어들의 뭉치인 구문으로 끊어서 관찰하라}고 충고한다. 그래야 문장의 구조를 파악할뿐 아니라 각 단어들을 어떤 상황에 끼워맞출 수 있는지도 익힐 수 있다는것. {영어도 알고보면 예외법칙은 얼마 안돼요. 어차피 실생활에서 쓰려고익힌 이상 제대로 된 올바른 표현을 써야죠.}.


주간조선 황성혜 주간부기자

출처: http://roadtou1.egloos.com/172609

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출처: http://edu.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2011/06/16/2011061600225.html

 

[대니얼 변의 SAT 멘토링] 칼리지 에세이 어떻게 쓸까?

조선일보 | 대니얼 변 FLEX 컬리지 프렙 원장

2011.06.15 14:28

 

자연스러운 내 이야기 들려주면 돼
이상적인 칼리지 에세이는 어떤 글일까? 실제 여러 학생의 프로필을 통해 각 학생이 어떻게 에세이를 접근해야 하는지, 어떤 주제와 내용이 효과적이었고 그렇지 못한 주제와 내용은 무엇이었는지를 함께 살펴본다. 또 실제로 입학사정이 진행되는 시기에 매주 수백, 수천 통의 지원서를 읽어야 하는 입학사정관의 입장에서는 에세이를 어떤 관점에서 읽고 있는가에 대해서도 알아본다. 우선 구체적으로 사례를 살피기에 앞서 칼리지 에세이를 쓸 때 일반적으로 주의해야 할 몇 가지 충고를 정리해 보자.

1. 나 자신을 알자

에세이는 진정한 자신의 모습을 보이는 글일 뿐, 입학사정관이 원하는 모습을 보이는 것이 아니다. 자신이 직접 참여했던 특별활동과 실제의 관심이나 흥미에 관해 자신을 잘 나타내는 내용의 글을 써야 한다. 물론 자신의 이력서를 그저 다시 나열하는 것은 에세이라고 할 수 없으니 '자신이 진정 누구인지' 이력서와는 다른 새로운 모습을 보여 줄 수 있어야 한다.

2. 나를 잘 포장하자

사회 수업에서 C를 받고 관련된 활동이 전혀 없다면 자신이 얼마나 역사를 좋아하는지에 대한 글을 써서는 안 된다. 에세이는 지원서의 다른 내용과 분리해서 생각해서는 안된다. 오히려 학생 지원서에 어떤 다른 내용이 있는지에 비춰 읽기 때문에 역효과가 날 수 있다. 칼리지 에세이는 최대한 지원서의 다른 부분을 보완하는 역할을 하여야 한다. 성적표, 활동기록 등 여러 가지 사항들을 자신이라는 하나의 그림으로 모아주는 글이어야 할 것이다.

3. 나만의 글을 쓰자

새벽 1시에 친한 친구에게 문자를 보내듯 글을 쓰라는 것은 절대 아니다. 하지만 대학 지원 에세이는 학교에 제출하는 영어 에세이보다는 더 개인적인 자연스러운 모습의 글이다. 따라서 SAT 시험공부를 하며 배운 어려운 영어단어로 에세이를 도배할 필요는 없다. 하지만 자신을 공식적으로 나타내는 글이니 대화체의 글은 피하고 정중하고도 남을 존중하는 글을 쓰도록 하자.

4. 입학사정관과 이야기를 하라

프린스턴 대학의 입학 사정관장은 가장 좋은 에세이는 재미있는 이야기를 듣는 것 같다고 말한다. 사람들은 재미있는 이야기 듣는 것을 좋아한다. 이는 입학사정관의 관심을 살 수 있는 길이기도 하다. 에세이다 작문이다 해서 너무 어렵게 생각하지만 말고 짧지만 자신을 잘 설명할 수 있는 이야기, 경험담 혹은 나만 가진 작은 특이 사항 중 어떤 것이 남이 나를 좋아하는 이유가 될 것인지를 깊이 생각해보자.

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Source : http://edu.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2011/06/23/2011062300292.html


[대니얼 변의 SAT 멘토링] '나만의 스토리' 에세이에 정확히 표현을
조선일보

2011.06.22 15:24

 

FLEX 컬리지 프렙 원장
오늘은 학생들이 실제 쓴 에세이를 통해 잘 쓴 글과 그렇지 않은 글의 차이를 살펴보자. 첫번째 학생은 자신의 리더십 경험에 대해 글을 썼다. 중학교 때부터 리더십 활동이 많은 학생이었으며 현재는 학생회장의 자리를 맡고 있다.

"그 말이 리더십의 이해에 또 새로운 시각을 제공하였다. 지금까지는 학교 축제에서 선배들보다 더 잘하고, 주니어 프롬을 위해 기금을 모으고, 모두를 위해 재미있는 무비 나이트를 준비하는 게 전부였다. 하지만 이제 리더십이 그 이상이라는 것을 알게 되었다. 어떤 경험도 헛되게 하지 않고 말과 행동으로 남을 복돋우는 것, 그것이 바로 내 리더십의 중심이 되어야겠다."

결말을 멋지게 내주었고 솔직한 글이겠지만, 사실 자기 자신에 대한 이야기를 잘 알리지는 못하였다. 이 학생은 10살 때 처음으로 반장 선거에 나서면서 선거본부로 아버지의 자동차 뒷좌석을 사용했고 학교에서 4년 내내 반장 등을 맡아 학생회에 참여했다. 학생회장이 될 때는 제일 친한 친구의 죽음이라는 슬픔을 딛고 일어나 당선된 소중한 경험을 했다. 그러나 이 에세이로는 이런 이야기를 알 수 없다. 이 에세이의 문제는 자신만의 이야기를 표현하지 않았다는 것이다. 입학 사정관의 관점에서 보면 자신의 이야기보다는 리더십이 어떤 것인지에 대한 논평에 불과하다.

두번째 학생은 자신의 특별 활동에 대한 이야기를 썼다.

"2차 세계 전쟁에 직접 참전했던 비에넨필드 씨와 같은 분들에게서 전쟁에 대해 직접 배웠다. 코디네이터로서의 의무도 있었지만, 프로젝트의 기금 모음 책임자라는 직책도 같이 맡았다. 전쟁 이야기(War Stories) 프로젝트를 위해 군중 앞에서 연설한 적도 있지만 200개 이상의 기업체에 편지를 보내기 위해 주소를 찾고 침이 다 마르도록 우표를 붙이며 밤을 지샌 것이 가장 기억에 남는다."

두 번째 학생의 경우 헌신하는 모습을 더 정확히 표현했다는 것이 포인트다. 200개의 편지를 쓰고 침이 마르도록 우표를 붙인 모습에서 헌신의 모습을 찾을 수 있다. 이 에세이의 첫 문단은 알츠하이머에 걸린 자신의 할아버지를 간호하는 과정에서 War Stories 프로젝트를 시작하게 된 동기를 풀어냈다. 두 번째 학생의 에세이가 첫 번째 학생의 에세이보다 높은 평가를 받는 이유는 더 개인적인 이야기로 시작했다는 것이다. 이런 시작을 통해 정이 많은 자신의 모습과 지원서의 큰 부분을 차지하는 War Stories 프로젝트의 시발점을 동시에 표현하고 설명했다. 또한 이 특별활동이 자신에게 진정 의미 있는 활동이라는 것도 간접적으로 알린 것이다.

모든 이의 성격과 인생, 경험이 다르듯 학생들도 자신만의 내용과 목소리를 찾는 것이 중요하다. 이상적인 지원자의 모습이 하나만이 아니듯 이상적인 에세이 역시 한 모습만으로 존재하는 것이 아님을 기억하자. 반대로 가장 좋은 에세이는 글쓴이의 관심사를 실례를 통해서 한 번 더 보여줄 수 있는 그런 글임을 명심하자.

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Source : http://edu.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2011/06/09/2011060900334.html


[대니얼 변의 SAT 멘토링] '에세이'라는 캔버스에 자기 색 입혀라
조선일보 | 대니얼 변 FLEX 컬리지 프렙 원장

2011.06.09 03:01

 

여름이 다가오면 에세이 준비를 시작할 시즌을 맞는다. 전 세계의 수험생은 자신을 최대한 빛내고 수만 명의 지원자와의 경쟁에서 이기기 위한 500개의 단어를 찾기 위해 많은 밤을 지새울 것이다.

칼리지 에세이를 빈 캔버스라고 생각해 보자. 대학은 학생들에게 이 캔버스를 채워 달라고 요구한다. 하지만 흰 캔버스를 그림으로 채운다는 것은 그리 쉬운 일이 아니다. 캔버스에 어떤 그림이 그려져 있나에 따라 그림의 주인공이 누구인지는 물론이고 대학 공동체에 어떤 영향을 끼칠지도 알 수 있기 때문이다. 바꾸어 말하면 첫째는 자신의 능력을 잘 보여줄 수 있는 내용이 무엇인가를 알아야 하고, 두 번째는 어떻게 읽는 사람의 흥미를 끌어낼 것인지를 고민해야 한다.

먼저, 칼리지 에세이는 개인의 이야기임을 명심하자. 입학 사정관들은 지원서에서 지원자의 진짜 모습을 떠올리고 싶어한다. 하지만 여러 가지 사실만 나열을 해서는 그 모습을 떠올리기가 쉽지가 않다. 매년 3만여 명의 학생들이 지원하는 스탠퍼드 대학의 경우에도 모든 지원자가 원하는 만큼 대학이 개인에 관심을 가질 수가 없다. 따라서 스스로 다른 지원자보다 더 두드러진 모습을 보여야 한다. 예를 들어, 음악에 출중한 학생은 자신이 피아노를 얼마나 사랑하는지에 대해 쓸 수 있을 것이다. 하지만 대학의 입장에선 그 학생의 음악적 능력 자체가 어떤 가치를 갖는지에 관심이 있다. 따라서 피아노를 사랑한다는 내용보다는 덜 좋은 환경에서 자란 학생들에게 피아노를 가르친 경험이 더 좋은 소재가 될 수 있다. 음악을 통한 시민 봉사 정신을 보여주는 것이 효과적일 수 있다는 것이다.

확실히 알아야 할 것은 입학 사정관이 좋아할 것 같은 소재와 실제로 입학 사정관이 원하는 글은 상당한 차이가 있다는 것이다. 여전히 대다수의 학생은 에세이를 쓸 때 이력서를 쓰듯 성취한 모습과 수준 높은 단어로 강한 인상을 남기려 한다. 하지만 그런 내용은 지원서의 다른 부문에서 찾을 수 있기에 사실상 기회를 하나 날려 버리는 셈이다. 입학 공통원서(Common Application)에 나와 있는 '칼리지 에세이는 학교 수업, 성적, 시험 점수, 그 외 객관적인 정보를 떠나 그 학생을 더 잘 이해하기 위한 수단이다'라는 점을 명심하라. 에세이는 지원서 다른 곳에선 찾을 수 없는 색다른 모습을 보여줄 유일무이한 기회이다.

FLEX의 입학 사정관들은 이구동성으로 말한다. "에세이를 읽기 시작하면서 이 학생이 나를 어떻게 현혹시킬 것인지, 어떻게 웃길 것인지 생각하지 않는다. 단지 이 학생은 도대체 누구인가를 알고 싶을 뿐이다."

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출처: http://edu.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2011/04/28/2011042800299.html


[대니얼 변의 SAT 멘토링] SAT 에세이, 논리적 근거 제시하라
조선일보 | 대니얼 변 · FLEX 컬리지 프렙 원장

2011.04.27 15:26

 

미국에서는 작문(writing)을 음악, 미술처럼 예능의 한 분야로 분류한다. 그림이나 음악처럼 글쓴이와 읽는이 사이에도 개인적이고 주관적인 소통이 이뤄지기 때문이다. 에세이(essay)라는 단어는 논설문, 수필, 담론 등 여러 가지 스타일과 장르를 포함한다. 이 때문에 모든 에세이를 평가할 수 있는 공통적인 표준은 없다. 하지만 철자법, 문법, 정확한 어휘 등 모든 글이 기본적으로 갖춰야 하는 기준은 에세이에도 적용된다.

SAT에 나오는 에세이는 25분 내에 작성해야 하는 논설문이다. 이는 대학 지원서에 많이 나오는 수필 형식이나 더 독창적인 글, 예를 들어 영어 수업에서 많이 쓰는 소설이나 설명문 형식의 글과는 전혀 다른 장르의 글이다. SAT의 에세이는 글 자체의 설득력만으로 평가된다. 예를 들어, 한 학생이 자신의 에세이를 뒷받침하는 이야기를 허위로 만들었어도 주관사인 칼리지보드는 절대 감점할 수 없다. 사실의 진위가 아니라 주장과 논리의 설득력만으로 평가하는 것이다.

SAT 에세이는 800점 만점의 SAT 작문의 약 3분의 1인 250점을 차지한다.(나머지 550점은 문법문제) 2명의 채점관이 5개의 항목을 각 6점 만점으로 채점한다. 기준이 되는 5개의 항목은 다음과 같다.

▶주어진 주제를 효과적이고 통찰력 있게 분석하고 자신의 관점을 뒷받침하기 위해 알맞은 이유, 예시 및 증거를 제공한다.

▶문단의 연결과 내용의 정리가 잘 되어 있고 글의 초점이 확실하다.

▶다양하고 정확한 단어 사용을 통해 언어구사의 숙련도를 보여준다.

▶다양한 문장구조를 사용한다.

▶문법, 철자법, 사용법 등의 오류가 없다.

항목별로 2명의 채점관 점수를 합하여 12점 만점으로 채점한다. 단, 두 채점관의 점수가 1점 이상 차이가 있으면 세 번째 채점관이 재채점을 한다. 이 에세이 점수는 문법 부문의 기록과 합쳐서 800점 만점의 작문 부문 점수로 환산한다. 아예 글을 쓰지 않거나 주제에서 완전히 벗어나는 내용을 쓰지 않는 한 0점을 받지는 않는다.

대부분의 학생이 에세이 때문에 많은 걱정을 하지만 평가하는 데 표준화된 항목이 존재하기 때문에 적절한 지도를 제대로 받는다면 좋은 점수를 획득하는 것은 그리 어렵지 않다. 효과적인 SAT 에세이 준비를 위한 포인트는 다음과 같다.

1. 시험에서 자주 등장하는 주제와 형식을 두루 익히자.

2. 자주 나오는 주제로 자신의 주장을 펼치는 연습을 하자. 찬성, 반대 어떤 편도 상관은 없다.

3. 자신의 주장을 뒷받침해 줄 예시를 몇 개 생각해 보자.

4. 연습! 연습! 연습! 많은 학생이 알면서도 글로 표현하지 못할 때가 잦다. 연습을 통해 글을 작성하고 완성하는 과정을 익혀야 한다.

지난 10년의 SAT 지도 경험과 노하우의 결정판인 FLEX 컬리지 프렙의 SAT 프로그램은 가장 많이 등장하는 SAT 에세이 주제를 분석해 매번 성공적인 에세이를 쓸 수 있도록 만들어져 있다. 학생들은 각 주제에 맞는 내용을 시간 내에 생각하고 정리하여 FLEX의 에세이 형식에 맞춰 글을 완성하도록 구성되어 있으며, 반복 연습을 통해 그 능력을 개발하고 향상시키는데 초점이 맞추어져 있다.

 

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[쿠도스 유학 컨설팅] 에세이 고득점 비법 'Why·How'에 있다
조선일보 | 사무엘 황 쿠도스 유학컨설팅 수석 컨설턴트

2010.08.12 03:26

 

SAT 준비
미국대학에 진학하려면 많은 조건이 필요하다. 학교 내신, 시험성적, 교사 추천서, 리더십과 봉사활동(extracurricular activities), 에세이 등이다. 이들 중 가장 중요한 것은 학교 내신이다. 국제 학생들이 반드시 봐야 하는 시험은 TOEFL, SAT I 그리고 SAT II다.

TOEFL(Test of English as a Foreign Language) 시험은 모두가 잘 알고 있듯이 국제학생들이 치러야 하는 영어 실력 평가 시험이다.

SAT I 시험은 수학(Math), 독해(Critical Reading), 작문(Writing) 총 3개로 나누어지는데 각 section 당 800점, 총 2400점이 만점이다. 한국 학생들의 SAT I 수학 성적은 대부분 만점에 가깝다. SAT I 수학은 Geometry와 Algebra I/II만 끝낸다면 문제없이 볼 수 있는 시험이다. SAT I Writing 점수는 800점 만점에서 30%는 에세이, 70%는 49개의 객관식 문제가 차지한다. SAT 에세이는 학교 에세이와는 다르게 에세이에 대해서 따로 점수를 주기 때문에 에세이 점수를 높이 받을 수 있는 요령만 터득한다면 점수가 잘 나오는 편이다. 그 요령은 한두 가지가 아니겠지만 그중에서도 가장 중요한 것은 2장의 에세이 종이를 다 채우는 것이다. 다음으로 중요한 것은 대주제문(Thesis)이 확실하게 두 가지 질문에 대한 답을 제시해야 한다. Why? (왜 내가 이런 주장을 하는 건지) 그리고 How? (어떻게 내가 이에 대해 주장할 것인지) 에세이 공부에 도움이 될 수 있는 것은 중학교 때부터 뉴욕타임스를 읽는 것이다. 특히 Opinions Section의 기사를 하루에 2개 정도 읽으면 많은 도움이 된다. SAT 시험에서만 나오는 문법은 반드시 공부를 해야 한다. SAT에서 중요하게 여기는 16개 문법 콘셉트가 있는데 이것들은 반드시 문제를 풀기 전에 공부해야 한다. SAT Reading은 총 67개의 객관식 문제가 있는데 그 중 19문제는 단어실력을 평가하는 문제이고 나머지 48문제는 읽는 객관식 문제들이다. SAT 단어는 대략 만개에 달하는데 단어와 Root Words를 완벽하게 외우면 별문제 없이 풀 수 있다. 그렇다면 단어는 어떤 단어가 좋을까? 처음 시작하는 단계에서 지금 현재 SAT 책 중 가장 정리가 잘 되어 있는 책은 Barron's에서 만드는 SAT 책인데, 이 책에 있는 3500개 단어를 먼저 외우는 게 좋다. 그렇다면 많은 학생이 어려워하는 Reading의 두 번째 부분은 어떻게 공부하면 좋을까? 그 방법은 독서에 있다. 중학교 때부터 SAT I 을 만드는 College Board가 추천해주는 미국의 클래식 책들을 읽으면 많은 도움이 된다.

SAT II 시험은 여러 과목별로 나누어져 있는데 대부분 상위권 대학들은 2개 과목의 시험점수를 요구한다. 이과 쪽으로 갈 학생들은 반드시 수학과 과학 과목 중 하나를 봐야 한다. 문과 쪽으로 공부할 계획이면 수학 한 과목을 보고, US History, World History, Literature 중에서 1개를 선택하는 것이 좋다.


 

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[대니얼 변의 SAT 멘토링] 문법 익혀 문제에 적용한다면… 쓰기는 'OK'
조선일보 | 대니얼 변 FLEX 컬리지 프렙 원장

2011.05.18 16:20

 

 
SAT 시험은 배우고 연습해서 준비하면 마스터할 수 있는 시험이다. 특히 SAT 쓰기(Writing) 섹션은 더욱 그렇다. 10학년 때 미국으로 이민 온 제니의 사례는 이를 증명해주는 완벽한 케이스다.

제니는 FLEX에서 SAT 공부를 시작했다. 공부에 대한 의지는 있었지만, 원어민이 아니어서 SAT 시험의 영어 부문을 공부하는데 상당한 어려움을 겪고 있었다. 그녀가 FLEX를 찾은 것은 12학년을 앞둔 여름방학 때였다. 목표는 브라운대 로드 아일랜드 스쿨 오브 디자인(Brown-RISD) 프로그램에 지원하기 위해 12학년 10월까지 2100점을 받는 것이었다. 다른 학원에서 수업을 들었지만 1800점에도 못 미치는 점수이었기에 우리로서도 달성 가능한 점수인지 가늠하기가 쉽지 않았다.

FLEX에서는 먼저 제니의 기존의 총점 1780점(CR 520, W 580, M 680)에서 목표점수인 2100점(CR 600, W 720, M 780)을 획득하기 위한 과목별 구체적 전략을 세웠다. 쓰기 점수 향상 목표를 다른 부분보다 높게 설정한 것이 중요한 포인트이었다. 제니는 특히 문법 부문을 집중적으로 피고들었다.

800점만점인 쓰기 부문 중 약 3분의 2인 550점 정도는 문법 문제로 이루어져 있다. 나머지 약 250점 정도가 작문인 에세이 부문이다. 에세이 쓰기를 걱정하는 학생들은 제니처럼 문법 공부에 집중하여 체계적으로 준비하면 좋은 점수를 얻을 수 있다. 반대로 문법 문제에서 좋은 점수를 얻지 못하면 쓰기 부문에서 고득점을 기대하는 것 자체가 어려운 일이다.

SAT 문법 문제는 아주 기술적이며 정형적인 패턴을 가지고 있다. 그러므로 영어를 감으로 구사하는 미국인보다 체계적으로 영어 공부를 한 외국인이 유리한 경우가 종종 있다. SAT 에세이의 경우도 글 쓰는 스타일에 대한 평가보다는 논리적인 서술을 요구하는 시험이므로 외국인도 쉽게 고득점을 받는 것이 가능하다.

제니는 12학년 10월 재시험에서 CR 630, W 770, M 740 총점 2140점을 받았다. 그리고 한해 20명도 채 안되는 Brown-RISD 프로그램에 합격했다. 다른 아시안 학생들처럼 수학(Mathematics) 점수가 가장 높을 것이라고 예상했으나 쓰기 점수가 더 좋은 결과를 보였다.

FLEX에서는 SAT 시험을 위해 꼭 필요한 10가지 문법을 정리해서 수업하고 있다. 이들 문법을 확실하게 익히고 문제에 적용할 수 있으면 쓰기 성적은 쉽게 향상시킬 수 있다. 예를 들어 SAT 문법은 ACT 시험과 달리 구두법에 대해 문제를 내지 않는다. 또한 철자법이나 대문자 사용법도 시험에 포함하지 않는다. 따라서 철자법이 틀려서 정답이 되는 경우는 없으므로 이 같은 보기는 피해야 한다. 이처럼 객관식 문법 문제는 바른 접근 방법을 익힌다면 영문법을 아주 깊이 공부하지 않아도 좋은 성과를 얻을 수 있다.


 

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영작문 고급과정에 있는 분이라면 꼭 한 번 읽어볼 만한 E-book입니다. 우리가 영문법에서 전형적으로 다루는 내용들도 많이 나옵니다. 역시 영문법은 영작문과 불가분의 관계에 있군요.  *참고로 이책은 지은이 사후 50년이 지나 저작권이 소멸된 책입니다.
---------------------------------------------------------------



How to Write Clearly.


RULES AND EXERCISES

ON

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.


BY THE


REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,

HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL.


THE AUTHOR'S COPYRIGHT EDITION.


BOSTON:
ROBERTS BROTHERS.
1883.


University Press: John Wilson & Son.
Cambridge.

PREFACE.

Almost every English boy can be taught to write clearly, so far at least as clearness depends upon the arrangement of words. Force, elegance, and variety of style are more difficult to teach, and far more difficult to learn; but clear writing can be reduced to rules. To teach the art of writing clearly is the main object of these Rules and Exercises.

Ambiguity may arise, not only from bad arrangement, but also from other causes—from the misuse of single words, and from confused thought. These causes are not removable by definite rules, and therefore, though not neglected, are not prominently considered in this book. My object rather is to point out some few continually recurring causes of ambiguity, and to suggest definite remedies in each case. Speeches in Parliament, newspaper narratives and articles, and, above all, resolutions at public meetings, furnish abundant instances of obscurity arising from the monotonous neglect of some dozen simple rules.

The art of writing forcibly is, of course, a valuable acquisition—almost as valuable as the art of writing clearly. But forcible expression is not, like clear expression, a mere question of mechanism and of the manipulation of words; it is a much higher power, and implies much more.

[Pg 6]

Writing clearly does not imply thinking clearly. A man may think and reason as obscurely as Dogberry himself, but he may (though it is not probable that he will) be able to write clearly for all that. Writing clearly—so far as arrangement of words is concerned—is a mere matter of adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs, placed and repeated according to definite rules.[1] Even obscure or illogical thought can be clearly expressed; indeed, the transparent medium of clear writing is not least beneficial when it reveals the illogical nature of the meaning beneath it.

On the other hand, if a man is to write forcibly, he must (to use a well-known illustration) describe Jerusalem as "sown with salt," not as "captured," and the Jews not as being "subdued" but as "almost exterminated" by Titus. But what does this imply? It implies knowledge, and very often a great deal of knowledge, and it implies also a vivid imagination. The writer must have eyes to see the vivid side of everything, as well as words to describe what he sees. Hence forcible writing, and of course tasteful writing also, is far less a matter of rules than is clear writing; and hence, though forcible writing is exemplified in the exercises, clear writing occupies most of the space devoted to the rules.

Boys who are studying Latin and Greek stand in especial need of help to enable them to write a long English sentence clearly. The periods of Thucydides and Cicero are not easily rendered into our idiom without some knowledge of the links that connect an English sentence.

There is scarcely any better training, rhetorical as well as logical, than the task of construing Thucydides into [Pg 7]genuine English; but the flat, vague, long-winded Greek-English and Latin-English imposture that is often tolerated in our examinations and is allowed to pass current for genuine English, diminishes instead of increasing the power that our pupils should possess over their native language. By getting marks at school and college for construing good Greek and Latin into bad English, our pupils systematically unlearn what they may have been allowed to pick up from Milton and from Shakespeare.

I must acknowledge very large obligations to Professor Bain's treatise on "English Composition and Rhetoric," and also to his English Grammar. I have not always been able to agree with Professor Bain as to matters of taste; but I find it difficult to express my admiration for the systematic thoroughness and suggestiveness of his book on Composition. In particular, Professor Bain's rule on the use of "that" and "which" (see Rule 8) deserves to be better known.[2] The ambiguity produced by the confusion between these two forms of the Relative is not a mere fiction of pedants; it is practically serious. Take, for instance, the following sentence, which appeared lately in one of our ablest weekly periodicals: "There are a good many Radical members in the House who cannot forgive the Prime Minister for being a Christian." Twenty years hence, who is to say whether the meaning is "and they, i.e. all the Radical members in the House," or "there are a good many Radical members of the House that cannot &c."? Professor Bain, apparently admitting no exceptions to his useful rule, amends many sentences in a manner that seems to me intolerably harsh. Therefore, while laying due stress on the utility of the rule, I have endeavoured to point out and explain the exceptions.

[Pg 8]

The rules are stated as briefly as possible, and are intended not so much for use by themselves as for reference while the pupil is working at the exercises. Consequently, there is no attempt to prove the rules by accumulations of examples. The few examples that are given, are given not to prove, but to illustrate the rules. The exercises are intended to be written out and revised, as exercises usually are; but they may also be used for vivâ voce instruction. The books being shut, the pupils, with their written exercises before them, may be questioned as to the reasons for the several alterations they have made. Experienced teachers will not require any explanation of the arrangement or rather non-arrangement of the exercises. They have been purposely mixed together unclassified to prevent the pupil from relying upon anything but his own common sense and industry, to show him what is the fault in each case, and how it is to be amended. Besides references to the rules, notes are attached to each sentence, so that the exercises ought not to present any difficulty to a painstaking boy of twelve or thirteen, provided he has first been fairly trained in English grammar.

The "Continuous Extracts" present rather more difficulty, and are intended for boys somewhat older than those for whom the Exercises are intended. The attempt to modernize, and clarify, so to speak, the style of Burnet, Clarendon, and Bishop Butler,[3] may appear ambitious, and perhaps requires some explanation. My object has, of course, not been to improve upon the style of these authors, but to show how their meaning might be expressed more clearly in modern English. The charm of the style is necessarily lost, but if the loss is recognized both by teacher and pupil, there is nothing, in my opinion, to [Pg 9]counterbalance the obvious utility of such exercises. Professor Bain speaks to the same effect:[4] "For an English exercise, the matter should in some way or other be supplied, and the pupil disciplined in giving it expression. I know of no better method than to prescribe passages containing good matter, but in some respects imperfectly worded, to be amended according to the laws and the proprieties of style. Our older writers might be extensively, though not exclusively, drawn upon for this purpose."

To some of the friends whose help has been already acknowledged in "English Lessons for English People," I am indebted for further help in revising these pages. I desire to express especial obligations to the Rev. J. H. Lupton, late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, and Second Master of St. Paul's School, for copious and valuable suggestions; also to several of my colleagues at the City of London School, among whom I must mention in particular the Rev. A. R. Vardy, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.


Before electrotyping the Fourth and Revised Edition, I wish to say one word as to the manner in which this book has been used by my highest class, as a collection of Rules for reference in their construing lessons. In construing, from Thucydides especially, I have found Rules 5, 30, 34, 36, 37, and 40a, of great use. The rules about Metaphor and Climax have also been useful in correcting faults of taste in their Latin and Greek compositions. I have hopes that, used in this way, this little book may be of service to the highest as well as to the middle classes of our schools.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Punctuation is fully discussed in most English Grammars, and is therefore referred to in this book only so far as is necessary to point out the slovenly fault of trusting too much to punctuation, and too little to arrangement.

[2] Before meeting with Professor Bain's rule, I had shown that the difference between the Relatives is generally observed by Shakespeare. See "Shakespearian Grammar," paragraph 259.

[3] Sir Archibald Alison stands on a very different footing. The extracts from this author are intended to exhibit the dangers of verbosity and exaggeration.

[4] "English Composition and Rhetoric," p. vii.


[Pg 10]

CONTENTS.

  PAGE
Index of Rules 11-13
Rules 14-40
Short Exercises 41-63
Continuous Exercises—Clarendon 64-70
          "              "          Burnet 70-73
          "              "          Butler 74-75
          "              "          Sir Archibald Aliso 76-78

[Pg 11]

INDEX OF RULES.

I. CLEARNESS AND FORCE.

WORDS.

1. Use words in their proper sense.

2. Avoid exaggerations.

3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."

4. Be careful in the use of "not ... and," "any," "but," "only," "not ... or," "that."

4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. "certain."

5. Be careful in the use of "he," "it," "they," "these," &c.

6. Report a speech in the First Person, where necessary to avoid ambiguity.

6 a. Use the Third Person where the exact words of the speaker are not intended to be given.

6 b. Omission of "that" in a speech in the Third Person.

7. When you use a Participle implying "when," "while," "though," or "that," show clearly by the context what is implied.

8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" or "which," if the meaning is "and he" or "and it," "for he" or "for it." In other cases use "that," if euphony allows. Exceptions.

9. Do not use "and which" for "which."

10. Equivalents for the Relative: (a) Participle or Adjective; (b) Infinitive; (c) "Whereby," "whereto," &c.; (d) "If a man;" (e) "And he," "and this," &c.; (f) "what;" (g) omission of Relative.

10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent before the Relative, where the non-repetition causes any ambiguity. See 38.

11. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract Nouns.

11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used.

12. Use particular persons instead of a class.

13. Use metaphor instead of literal statement.

14. Do not confuse metaphor.

14 a. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement.

14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.

ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.

15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i.e., for the most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence.

15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end. Exceptions.

[Pg 12] 15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.

16. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred from the beginning of the sentence.

17. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb for emphasis.

18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an intensifying word.

19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected.

20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to qualify.

21. "Only"; the strict rule is that "only" should be placed before the word it affects.

22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by the same part of speech.

23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes produce ambiguity.

24. Nouns should be placed near the Nouns that they define.

25. Pronouns should follow the Nouns to which they refer, without the intervention of any other Noun.

26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible. Avoid parentheses. But see 55.

27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.

28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from those that are independent.

29. Where there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.

30. The principle of Suspense.

30 a. It is a violation of the principle of suspense to introduce unexpectedly at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (a) "not," (b) "which."

31. Suspense must not be excessive.

32. In a sentence with "if," "when," "though," &c., put the "if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.

33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective, that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.

34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one hand," &c., add clearness.

35. Repeat the Subject, where its omission would cause obscurity or ambiguity.

36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene.

37. Repeat Conjunctions, Auxiliary Verbs, and Pronominal Adjectives.

37 a. Repeat Verbs after the Conjunctions "than," "as," &c.

[Pg 13]

38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken.

39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentence prepares the way for the middle, and the middle for the end, the whole forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."

40. When the thought is expected to ascend, but descends, feebleness, and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called "bathos."

40 a. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly.

41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness.

42. Epigram.

43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences.

44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of the sentence.

45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of thought.

II. BREVITY.

46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.

47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular terms.

47 a. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word.

48. Participles may often be used as brief (though sometimes ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.

49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns may be used as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.

50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being expressed at length.

51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, e.g. "very," "so." Exaggerated epithets, e.g. "incalculable," "unprecedented."

51 a. The imperative may be used for "if &c."

52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences into one.

53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common Subject of several Verbs; (2) the common Object of several Verbs or Prepositions.

54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied.

55. Parenthesis maybe used with advantage to brevity. See 26.

56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the first consideration.


[Pg 14]

CLEARNESS AND FORCE.

Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules.

WORDS.

1. Use words in their proper sense.

Write, not "His apparent guilt justified his friends in disowning him," but "his evident guilt." "Conscious" and "aware," "unnatural" and "supernatural," "transpire" and "occur," "circumstance" and "event," "reverse" and "converse," "eliminate" and "elicit," are often confused together.

This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses. "It is in my power to refuse your request, and since I have power to do this, I may lawfully do it." Here the second "power" is used for "authority."

This rule also forbids the slovenly use of "nice," "awfully," "delicious," "glorious," &c. See (2).

2. Avoid exaggerations.

"The boundless plains in the heart of the empire furnished inexhaustible supplies of corn, that would have almost sufficed for twice the population."

Here "inexhaustible" is inconsistent with what follows. The words "unprecedented," "incalculable," "very," and "stupendous" are often used in the same loose way.

3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."

"Her Majesty here partook of lunch." Write "lunched."

"Partook of" implies sharing, and is incorrect as well as lengthy.

So, do not use "apex" for "top," "species" for "kind," "individual" for "man," "assist" for "help," &c.

4. Be careful how you use the following words: "not ... and," "any," "only," "not ... or," "that."[5]

[Pg 15]

And. See below, "Or."

Any.—"I am not bound to receive any messenger that you send." Does this mean every, or a single? Use "every" or "a single."

Not.—(1) "I do not intend to help you, because you are my enemy &c." ought to mean (2), "I intend not to help you, and my reason for not helping you is, because you are my enemy." But it is often wrongly used to mean (3), "I intend to help you, not because you are my enemy (but because you are poor, blind, &c.)." In the latter case, not ought to be separated from intend. By distinctly marking the limits to which the influence of not extends, the ambiguity may be removed.

Only is often used ambiguously for alone. "The rest help me to revenge myself; you only advise me to wait." This ought to mean, "you only advise, instead of helping;" but in similar sentences "you only" is often used for "you alone." But see 21.

Or.—When "or" is preceded by a negative, as "I do not want butter or honey," "or" ought not, strictly speaking, to be used like "and," nor like "nor." The strict use of "not ... or" would be as follows:—

"You say you don't want both butter and honey—you want butter or honey; I, on the contrary, do not want butter or honey—I want them both."

Practically, however, this meaning is so rare, that "I don't want butter or honey" is regularly used for "I want neither butter nor honey." But where there is the slightest danger of ambiguity, it is desirable to use nor.

The same ambiguity attends "not ... and." "I do not see Thomas and John" is commonly used for "I see neither Thomas nor John;" but it might mean, "I do not see them both—I see only one of them."

That.—The different uses of "that" produce much ambiguity, e.g. "I am so much surprised by this statement that I am desirous of resigning, that I scarcely know what reply to make." Here it is impossible to tell, till one has read past "resigning," whether the first "that" depends upon "so" or "statement." Write: "The statement that I am desirous of resigning surprises me so much that I scarcely know &c."

4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. "certain."

"Certain" is often used for "some," as in "Independently of his earnings, he has a certain property," where the meaning might be "unfailing."

Under this head may be mentioned the double use of words, such as "left" in the same form and sound, but different in meaning. Even where there is [Pg 16]no obscurity, the juxtaposition of the same word twice used in two senses is inelegant, e.g. (Bain), "He turned to the left and left the room."

I have known the following slovenly sentence misunderstood: "Our object is that, with the aid of practice, we may sometime arrive at the point where we think eloquence in its most praiseworthy form to lie." "To lie" has been supposed to mean "to deceive."

5. Be careful how you use "he," "it," "they," "these," &c. (For "which" see 8.) The ambiguity arising from the use of he applying to different persons is well known.

"He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an hour he thought he had better return." See (6) for remedy.

Much ambiguity is also caused by excessive use of such phrases as in this way, of this sort, &c.

"God, foreseeing the disorders of human nature, has given us certain passions and affections which arise from, or whose objects are, these disorders. Of this sort are fear, resentment, compassion."

Repeat the noun: "Among these passions and affections are fear &c."

Two distinct uses of it may be noted. It, when referring to something that precedes, may be called "retrospective;" but when to something that follows, "prospective." In "Avoid indiscriminate charity: it is a crime," "it" is retrospective.[6] In "It is a crime to give indiscriminately," "it" is prospective.

The prospective "it," if productive of ambiguity, can often be omitted by using the infinitive as a subject: "To give indiscriminately is a crime."

6. Report a speech in the First, not the Third Person, where necessary to avoid ambiguity. Speeches in the third person afford a particular, though very common case, of the general ambiguity mentioned in (5). Instead of "He told his friend that if he did not feel better &c.," write "He said to his friend, 'If, I (or you) don't feel better &c.'"

6 a. Sometimes, where the writer cannot know the exact words, or where the exact words are unimportant, or lengthy and uninteresting, the Third Person is preferable. Thus, where Essex is asking Sir Robert Cecil that Francis Bacon may be appointed Attorney-General, the dialogue is (as it almost always is in Lord Macaulay's writings) in the First Person, except where it becomes tedious and uninteresting so as to require condensation, and then it drops into the Third Person:

"Sir Robert had nothing to say but that he thought his own abilities equal to the place which he hoped to obtain, and that his father's long services deserved such a mark of gratitude from the Queen."

[Pg 17]

6 b. Omission of "that" in a speech reported in the Third Person.—Even when a speech is reported in the third person, "that" need not always be inserted before the dependent verb. Thus, instead of "He said that he took it ill that his promises were not believed," we may write, "'He took it ill,' he said, 'that &c.'" This gives a little more life, and sometimes more clearness also.

7. When you use a Participle, as "walking," implying "when," "while," "though," "that," make it clear by the context what is implied.

"Republics, in the first instance, are never desired for their own sakes. I do not think they will finally be desired at all, unaccompanied by courtly graces and good breeding."

Here there is a little doubt whether the meaning is "since they are, or, if they are, unaccompanied."

That or when.—"Men walking (that walk, or when they walk) on ice sometimes fall."

It is better to use "men walking" to mean "men when they walk." If the relative is meant, use "men that walk," instead of the participle.

(1) "While he was
(2) "Because he was
} Walking on { (1) the road,
(2) the ice,
} he fell."

When the participle precedes the subject, it generally implies a cause: "Seeing this, he retired." Otherwise it generally has its proper participial meaning, e.g. "He retired, keeping his face towards us." If there is any ambiguity, write "on seeing,"—"at the same time, or while, keeping."

(1) "Though he was
(2) "Since he was
(3) "If he is
} Struck with terror, { (1) he nevertheless stood his ground."
(2) he rapidly retreated."
(3) he will soon retreat."

8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" and "which" where the meaning is "and he, it, &c.," "for he, it, &c." In other cases use "that," if euphony allows.

"I heard this from the inspector, who (and he) heard it from the guard that travelled with the train."

"Fetch me (all) the books that lie on the table, and also the pamphlets, which (and these) you will find on the floor."

An adherence to this rule would remove much ambiguity. Thus: "There was a public-house next door, which was a great nuisance," means "and this (i.e. the fact of its being next door) was a great nuisance;" whereas that would have meant "Next door was a public-house that (i.e. the public-house) was a great [Pg 18]nuisance." "Who," "which," &c. introduce a new fact about the antecedent, whereas "that" introduces something without which the antecedent is incomplete or undefined. Thus, in the first example above, "inspector" is complete in itself, and "who" introduces a new fact about him; "guard" is incomplete, and requires "that travelled with the train" to complete the meaning.

It is not, and cannot be, maintained that this rule, though observed in Elizabethan English, is observed by our best modern authors. (Probably a general impression that "that" cannot be used to refer to persons has assisted "who" in supplanting "that" as a relative.) But the convenience of the rule is so great that beginners in composition may with advantage adhere to the rule. The following are some of the cases where who and which are mostly used, contrary to the rule, instead of that.

Exceptions:

(a) When the antecedent is defined, e.g. by a possessive case, modern English uses who instead of that. It is rare, though it would be useful,[7] to say "His English friends that had not seen him" for "the English friends, or those of his English friends, that had not seen him."

(b) That sounds ill when separated from its verb and from its antecedents, and emphasized by isolation: "There are many persons that, though unscrupulous, are commonly good-tempered, and that, if not strongly incited by self-interest, are ready for the most part to think of the interest of their neighbours." Shakespeare frequently uses who after that when the relative is repeated. See "Shakespearian Grammar," par. 260.

(c) If the antecedent is qualified by that, the relative must not be that. Besides other considerations, the repetition is disagreeable. Addison ridicules such language as "That remark that I made yesterday is not that that I said that I regretted that I had made."

(d) That cannot be preceded by a preposition, and hence throws the preposition to the end. "This is the rule that I adhere to." This is perfectly good English, though sometimes unnecessarily avoided. But, with some prepositions, the construction is harsh and objectionable, e.g. "This is the mark that I jumped beyond," "Such were the prejudices that he rose above." The reason is that some of these disyllabic prepositions are used as adverbs, and, when separated from their nouns, give one the impression that they are used as adverbs.

(e) After pronominal adjectives used for personal pronouns, modern English prefers who. "There are many, others, several, those, who can testify &c."

(f) After that used as a conjunction there is sometimes a dislike to use that as a relative. See (c).

9. Do not use redundant "and" before "which."[8]

"I gave him a very interesting book for a present, and which cost me five shillings."

In short sentences the absurdity is evident, but in long sentences it is less evident, and very common.

"A petition was presented for rescinding that portion of the bye-laws which permits application of public money to support [Pg 19]sectarian schools over which ratepayers have no control, this being a violation of the principle of civil and religious liberty, and which the memorialists believe would provoke a determined and conscientious resistance."

Here which ought grammatically to refer to "portion" or "schools." But it seems intended to refer to "violation." Omit "and," or repeat "a violation" before "which," or turn the sentence otherwise.

10. Equivalents for Relative.

(a) Participle.—"Men thirsting (for 'men that thirst') for revenge are not indifferent to plunder." The objection to the participle is that here, as often, it creates a little ambiguity. The above sentence may mean, "men, when they thirst," or "though they thirst," as well as "men that thirst." Often however there is no ambiguity: "I have documents proving this conclusively."

(b) Infinitive.—Instead of "He was the first that entered" you can write "to enter;" for "He is not a man who will act dishonestly," "to act." This equivalent cannot often be used.

(c) Whereby, wherein, &c., can sometimes be used for "by which," "in which," so as to avoid a harsh repetition of "which." "The means whereby this may be effected." But this use is somewhat antiquated.

(d) If.—"The man that does not care for music is to be pitied" can be written (though not so forcibly), "If a man does not care for music, he is to be pitied." It is in long sentences that this equivalent will be found most useful.

(e) And this.—"He did his best, which was all that could be expected," can be written, "and this was all that, &c."

(f) What.—"Let me repeat that which[9] you ought to know, that that which is worth doing is worth doing well." "Let me repeat, what you ought to know, that what is worth doing is worth doing well."

(g) Omission of Relative.—It is sometimes thought ungrammatical to omit the relative, as in "The man (that) you speak of." On the contrary, that when an object (not when a subject) may be omitted, wherever the antecedent and the subject of the relative sentence are brought into juxtaposition by the omission.

10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent in some new form, where there is any ambiguity. This is particularly useful [Pg 20]after a negative: "He said that he would not even hear me, which I confess I had expected." Here the meaning may be, "I had expected that he would," or "that he would not, hear me." Write, "a refusal, or, a favour, that I confess I had expected." See (38).

11. Use particular for general terms.—This is a most important rule. Instead of "I have neither the necessaries of life nor the means of procuring them," write (if you can with truth), "I have not a crust of bread, nor a penny to buy one."

Caution.—There is a danger in this use. The meaning is vividly expressed but sometimes may be exaggerated or imperfect. Crust of bread may be an exaggeration; on the other hand, if the speaker is destitute not only of bread, but also of shelter and clothing, then crust of bread is an imperfect expression of the meaning.

In philosophy and science, where the language ought very often to be inclusive and brief, general and not particular terms must be used.

11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used instead. The disadvantage of the use of Verbal Nouns is this, that, unless they are immediately preceded by prepositions, they are sometimes liable to be confounded with participles. The following is an instance of an excessive use of Verbal Nouns:

"The pretended confession of the secretary was only collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's favouring popery, which still hung upon him, notwithstanding his writing on the Revelation, and affecting to enter on all occasions into controversy, asserting in particular that the Pope was Antichrist."

Write "notwithstanding that he wrote and affected &c."

12. Use a particular Person instead of a class.

"What is the splendour of the greatest monarch compared with the beauty of a flower?" "What is the splendour of Solomon compared with the beauty of a daisy?"

Under this head may come the forcible use of Noun for Adjective: "This fortress is weakness itself."

An excess of this use is lengthy and pedantically bombastic, e.g., the following paraphrase for "in every British colony:"—"under Indian palm-groves, amid Australian gum-trees, in the shadow of African mimosas, and beneath Canadian pines."

13. Use Metaphor instead of literal statement.

"The ship ploughs the sea" is clearer than "the ship cleaves the sea," and shorter than "the ship cleaves the sea as a plough cleaves the land."

[Pg 21]

Of course there are some subjects for which Metaphor should not be used. See (14 a) and (14 b).

14. Do not confuse Metaphor.

"In a moment the thunderbolt was upon them, deluging their country with invaders."

The following is attributed to Sir Boyle Roche: "Mr. Speaker, I smell a rat, I see him brewing in the air; but, mark me, I shall yet nip him in the bud."

Some words, once metaphorical, have ceased to be so regarded. Hence many good writers say "under these circumstances" instead of "in these circumstances."

An excessive regard for disused metaphor savours of pedantry: disregard is inelegant. Write, not, "unparalleled complications," but "unprecedented complications;" and "he threw light on obscurities," instead of "he unravelled obscurities."

14 a. Do not introduce literal statement immediately after Metaphor.

"He was the father of Chemistry, and brother to the Earl of Cork."

"He was a very thunderbolt of war,
And was lieutenant to the Earl of Mar."

14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject. Thus, we may say "a poet soars," or even, though rarely, "a nation soars to greatness," but you could not say "Consols soared to 94½." Even commonplace subjects may be illustrated by metaphor: for it is a metaphor, and quite unobjectionable, to say "Consols mounted, or jumped to 94½." But commonplace subjects must be illustrated by metaphor that is commonplace.

ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.

15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i.e. for the most part, at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. This rule occasionally supersedes the common rules about position. Thus, the place for an adverb, as a rule, should be between the subject and verb: "He quickly left the room;" but if quickly is to be emphatic, it must come at the beginning or end, as in "I told him to leave the room slowly, but he left quickly."

Adjectives, in clauses beginning with "if" and "though," often come at the beginning for emphasis: "Insolent though he was, he was silenced at last."

[Pg 22]

15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end of the sentence. It is a common fault to break this rule by placing a short and unemphatic predicate at the end of a long sentence.

"To know some Latin, even if it be nothing but a few Latin roots, is useful." Write, "It is useful, &c."

So "the evidence proves how kind to his inferiors he is."

Often, where an adjective or auxiliary verb comes at the end, the addition of an emphatic adverb justifies the position, e.g. above, "is very useful," "he has invariably been."

A short "chippy" ending, even though emphatic, is to be avoided. It is abrupt and unrhythmical, e.g. "The soldier, transfixed with the spear, writhed." We want a longer ending, "fell writhing to the ground," or, "writhed in the agonies of death." A "chippy" ending is common in bad construing from Virgil.

Exceptions.—Prepositions and pronouns attached to emphatic words need not be moved from the end; e.g. "He does no harm that I hear of." "Bear witness how I loved him."

N.B. In all styles, especially in letter-writing, a final emphasis must not be so frequent as to become obtrusive and monotonous.

15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis. "No one can doubt that the prisoner, had he been really guilty, would have shown some signs of remorse," is not so emphatic as "Who can doubt, Is it possible to doubt, &c.?"

Contrast "No one ever names Wentworth without thinking of &c." with "But Wentworth,—who ever names him without thinking of those harsh dark features, ennobled by their expression into more than the majesty of an antique Jupiter?"

16. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be removed from the beginning of the sentence. The beginning of the sentence is an emphatic position, though mostly not so emphatic as the end. Therefore the principal subject of a sentence, being emphatic, and being wanted early in the sentence to tell us what the sentence is about, comes as a rule, at or near the beginning: "Thomas built this house."

Hence, since the beginning is the usual place for the subject, if we want to emphasize "Thomas" unusually, we must remove "Thomas" from the beginning: "This house was built by Thomas," or "It was Thomas that built this house."

Thus, the emphasis on "conqueror" is not quite so strong in "A mere conqueror ought not to obtain from us the reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind," as in "We ought [Pg 23]not to bestow the reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind, upon a mere conqueror." Considerable, but less emphasis and greater smoothness (19) will be obtained by writing the sentence thus: "We ought not to bestow upon a mere conqueror &c."

Where the same subject stands first in several consecutive sentences, it rises in emphasis, and need not be removed from the beginning, even though unusual emphasis be required:

"The captain was the life and soul of the expedition. He first pointed out the possibility of advancing; he warned them of the approaching scarcity of provisions; he showed how they might replenish their exhausted stock &c."

17. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis. This is most common in antithesis. "Jesus I know, and Paul I know; but who are ye?" "Some he imprisoned, others he put to death."

Even where there is no antithesis the inversion is not uncommon:

"Military courage, the boast of the sottish German, of the frivolous and prating Frenchman, of the romantic and arrogant Spaniard, he neither possesses nor values."

This inversion sometimes creates ambiguity in poetry, e.g. "The son the father slew," and must be sparingly used in prose.

Sometimes the position of a word may be considered appropriate by some, and inappropriate by others, according to different interpretations of the sentence. Take as an example, "Early in the morning the nobles and gentlemen who attended on the king assembled in the great hall of the castle; and here they began to talk of what a dreadful storm it had been the night before. But Macbeth could scarcely understand what they said, for he was thinking of something worse." The last sentence has been amended by Professor Bain into "What they said, Macbeth could scarcely understand." But there appears to be an antithesis between the guiltless nobles who can think about the weather, and the guilty Macbeth who cannot. Hence, "what they said" ought not, and "Macbeth" ought, to be emphasized: and therefore "Macbeth" ought to be retained at the beginning of the sentence.

The same author alters, "The praise of judgment Virgil has justly contested with him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled," into "Virgil has justly contested with him the praise of judgment, but no one has yet rivalled his invention"—an alteration which does not seem to emphasize sufficiently the antithesis between what had been 'contested,' on the one hand, and what remained as yet 'unrivalled' on the other.

More judiciously Professor Bain alters, "He that tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakes; for he must be forced to invent twenty more to maintain one," into "for, to maintain one, he must invent twenty more," putting the emphatic words in their emphatic place, at the end.

18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most emphatic. Thus, in "The state was made, under the pretence of serving it, in reality the prize of their contention to each of these opposite parties," it is unpleasantly doubtful whether the writer means (1) state or (2) parties to be emphatic.

[Pg 24]

If (1), "As for the state, these two parties, under the pretence of serving it, converted it into a prize for their contention." If (2), write, "Though served in profession, the state was in reality converted into a prize for their contention by these two parties." In (1) parties is subordinated, in (2) state.

Sometimes the addition of some intensifying word serves to emphasize. Thus, instead of "To effect this they used all devices," we can write "To effect this they used every conceivable device." So, if we want to emphasize fidelity in "The business will task your skill and fidelity," we can write "Not only your skill but also your fidelity." This, however, sometimes leads to exaggerations. See (2).

Sometimes antithesis gives emphasis, as in "You do not know this, but you shall know it." Where antithesis cannot be used, the emphasis must be expressed by turning the sentence, as "I will make you know it," or by some addition, as "You shall hereafter know it."

19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected. See Paragraphs 20 to 29. For exceptions see 30.

20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to affect. When unemphatic, adverbs come between the subject and the verb, or, if the tense is compound, between the parts of the compound tense: "He quickly left the room;" "He has quickly left the room;" but, when emphatic, after the verb: "He left, or has left, the room quickly."[10] When such a sentence as the latter is followed by a present participle, there arises ambiguity. "I told him to go slowly, but he left the room quickly, dropping the purse on the floor." Does quickly here modify left or dropping? The remedy[11] is, to give the adverb its unemphatic place, "He quickly left the room, dropping &c.," or else to avoid the participle, thus: "He quickly dropped the purse and left the room," or "He dropped the purse and quickly left the room."

21. "Only" requires careful use. The strict[12] rule is, that "only" should be placed before the word affected by it.

[Pg 25]

The following is ambiguous:

"The heavens are not open to the faithful only at intervals."

The best rule is to avoid placing "only" between two emphatic words, and to avoid using "only" where "alone" can be used instead.

In strictness perhaps the three following sentences:

(1) He only beat three,
(2) He beat only three,
(3) He beat three only,

ought to be explained, severally, thus:

(1) He did no more than beat, did not kill, three.
(2) He beat no more than three.
(3) He beat three, and that was all he did. (Here only modifies the whole of the sentence and depreciates the action.)

But the best authors sometimes transpose the word. "He only lived" ought to mean "he did not die or make any great sacrifice;" but "He only lived but till he was a man" (Macbeth, v. 8. 40) means "He lived only till he was a man." Compare also, "Who only hath immortality."

Only at the beginning of a statement = but. "I don't like to importune you, only I know you'll forgive me." Before an imperative it diminishes the favour asked: "Only listen to me." This use of only is mostly confined to letters.

Very often, only at the beginning of a sentence is used for alone: "Only ten came," "Only Cæsar approved." Alone is less ambiguous. The ambiguity of only is illustrated by such a sentence as, "Don't hesitate to bring a few friends of yours to shoot on my estate at any time. Only five (fifteen) came yesterday," which might mean, "I don't mind a few; only don't bring so many as fifteen;" or else "Don't hesitate to bring a few more; no more than five came yesterday." In conversation, ambiguity is prevented by emphasis; but in a letter, only thus used might cause unfortunate mistakes. Write "Yesterday only five came," if you mean "no more than five."

22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by the same part of speech.

"He not only gave me advice but also help" is wrong. Write "He gave me, not only advice, but also help." On the other hand, "He not only gave me a grammar, but also lent me a dictionary," is right. Take an instance. "He spoke not only forcibly but also tastefully (adverbs), and this too, not only before a small audience, but also in (prepositions) a large public meeting, and his speeches were not only successful, but also (adjective) worthy of success."

23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes produce ambiguity.

"I think you will find my Latin exercise, at all events, as good as my cousin's." Does this mean (1) "my Latin exercise, though not perhaps my other exercises;" or (2), "Though not very good, yet, at all events, as good as my cousin's"? Write for (1), "My Latin exercise, at all events, you will find &c." and for (2), "I think you will find my Latin exercise as good as my cousin's, at all events."

[Pg 26]

The remedy is to avoid placing "at all events" between two emphatic words.

As an example of the misplacing of an adverbial adjunct, take "From abroad he received most favourable reports, but in the City he heard that a panic had broken out on the Exchange, and that the funds were fast falling." This ought to mean that the "hearing," and not (as is intended) that the "breaking out of the panic," took place in the City.

In practice, an adverb is often used to qualify a remote word, where the latter is more emphatic than any nearer word. This is very common when the Adverbial Adjunct is placed in an emphatic position at the beginning of the sentence: "On this very spot our guide declared that Claverhouse had fallen."

24. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define. In the very common sentence "The death is announced of Mr. John Smith, an author whose works &c.," the transposition is probably made from a feeling that, if we write "The death of Mr. John Smith is announced," we shall be obliged to begin a new sentence, "He was an author whose works &c." But the difficulty can be removed by writing "We regret to announce, or, we are informed of, the death of Mr. John Smith, an author, &c."

25. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of another noun. Avoid, "John Smith, the son of Thomas Smith, who gave me this book," unless Thomas Smith is the antecedent of who. Avoid also "John supplied Thomas with money: he (John) was very well off."

When, however, one of two preceding nouns is decidedly superior to the other in emphasis, the more emphatic may be presumed to be the noun referred to by the pronoun, even though the noun of inferior emphasis intervenes. Thus: "At this moment the colonel came up, and took the place of the wounded general. He gave orders to halt." Here he would naturally refer to colonel, though general intervenes. A conjunction will often show that a pronoun refers to the subject of the preceding sentence, and not to another intervening noun. "The sentinel at once took aim at the approaching soldier, and fired. He then retreated to give the alarm."

It is better to adhere, in most cases, to Rule 25, which may be called (Bain) the Rule of Proximity. The Rule of Emphasis, of which an instance was given in the last paragraph, is sometimes misleading. A distinction might be drawn by punctuating thus:

"David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath." "David, the father of Solomon who built the Temple." But the propriety of omitting a comma in each case is questionable, and it is better to write so as not to be at the mercy of commas.

26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible. (But see 55.) The introduction of parentheses violating this rule often produced serious ambiguity. Thus, in the following: "The result of these observations appears to be in opposition to the view now generally [Pg 27]received in this country, that in muscular effort the substance of the muscle itself undergoes disintegration." Here it is difficult to tell whether the theory of "disintegration" is (1) "the result," or, as the absence of a comma after "be" would indicate, (2) "in opposition to the result of these observations." If (1) is intended, add "and to prove" after "country;" if (2), insert "which is" after "country."

There is an excessive complication in the following:—"It cannot, at all events, if the consideration demanded by a subject of such importance from any one professing to be a philosopher, be given, be denied that &c."

Where a speaker feels that his hearers have forgotten the connection of the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat what he has said; e.g. after the long parenthesis in the last sentence he should recommence, "it cannot, I say, be denied." In writing, however, this licence must be sparingly used.

A short parenthesis, or modifying clause, will not interfere with clearness, especially if antithesis he used, so as to show the connection between the different parts of the sentence, e.g. "A modern newspaper statement, though probably true, would be laughed at if quoted in a book as testimony; but the letter of a court gossip is thought good historical evidence if written some centuries ago." Here, to place "though probably true" at the beginning of the sentence would not add clearness, and would impair the emphasis of the contrast between "a modern newspaper statement" and "the letter of a court gossip."

27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.—There is ambiguity in "The lesson intended to be taught by these manœuvres will be lost, if the plan of operations is laid down too definitely beforehand, and the affair degenerates into a mere review." Begin, in any case, with the antecedent, "If the plan," &c. Next write, according to the meaning: (1) "If the plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c., then the lesson will be lost;" or (2) " ... then the lesson ... will be lost, and the affair degenerates into a mere review."

28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from those that are independent.

Take as an example:

(1) "He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to make preparations accordingly."

This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for shortness) to mean:

(2) "He replied ..., and he intended."

In (1), "intended," having no subject, must be supposed to be connected with the nearest preceding verb, in the same mood and tense, that has a subject, i.e. "wished." It follows that (1) is a condensation of:

[Pg 28]

(3) "He replied that he wished ..., and that he intended."

(2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is practically ambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subject unnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word or a full stop between the two statements. Thus:

(4) "He replied that he wished to help them, and indeed he intended," &c., or "He replied, &c. He intended, &c."

Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3) or (4) in preference to (1) or (2).

29. When there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.

"He said that he wished to take his friend with him to visit the capital and to study medicine." Here it is doubtful whether the meaning is—

"He said that he wished to take his friend with him,

(1) and also to visit the capital and study medicine," or

(2) "that his friend might visit the capital and might also study medicine," or

(3) "on a visit to the capital, and that he also wished to study medicine."

From the three different versions it will be perceived that this ambiguity must be met (a) by using "that" for "to," which allows us to repeat an auxiliary verb [e.g. "might" in (2)], and (b) by inserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions, see (37).

"In order to," and "for the purpose of," can be used to distinguish (wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive that expresses a purpose, and an infinitive that does not, e.g. "He told his servant to call upon his friend, to (in order to) give him information about the trains, and not to leave him till he started."

30. The principle of suspense. Write your sentence in such a way that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader may feel the sentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep your reader in suspense. Suspense is caused (1) by placing the "if-clause" first, and not last, in a conditional sentence; (2) by placing participles before the words they qualify; (3) by using suspensive conjunctions, e.g. not only, either, partly, on the one hand, in the first place, &c.

The following is an example of an unsuspended sentence. The sense draggles, and it is difficult to keep up one's attention.

"Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience in parliaments, | where he had served very long, | and was always a man of business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, | and of a [Pg 29]good reputation generally, | though known to be inclined to the Puritan party; yet not of those furious resolutions (Mod. Eng. so furiously resolved) against the Church as the other leading men were, | and wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford,—who had nothing of that spirit."

The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the eight points marked above. When suspended it becomes:—

"Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the Exchequer, was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary experience and for his knowledge of business. He had also a good reputation generally; for, though openly favouring the Puritan party, he was closely devoted to the Earl of Bedford, and, like the Earl, had none of the fanatical spirit manifested against the Church by the other leading men."

30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to introduce unexpectedly, at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (a) " ... not" or (b) " ... which."

(a) "This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classes of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us industry, self-dependence, and frugality, and not, as some say, wastefulness."

Write "not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence, and frugality."

(b) "After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which was a little dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we arrived safely at York, which is a fine old town."

Exception.—When the short final clause is intended to be unexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with something of the sting of an epigram. See (42). Thus:

"The old miser said that he should have been delighted to give the poor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had left his purse at home—a habit of his."

Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words for which we are waiting, i.e. on the end of the sentence. It has been pointed out above that a monotony of final emphasis is objectionable, especially in letter writing and conversation.

31. Suspense must not be excessive. Excess of suspense is a common fault in boys translating from Latin. "Themistocles, having secured the safety of Greece, the Persian fleet being now destroyed, when he had unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Greeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont, hearing that Xerxes was in full flight, and thinking that it might be profitable to secure the friendship of the king, wrote as [Pg 30]follows to him." The more English idiom is: "When Themistocles had secured the safety of Greece by the destruction of the Persian fleet, he made an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the Greeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont. Soon afterwards, hearing &c."

A long suspense that would be intolerable in prose is tolerable in the introduction to a poem. See the long interval at the beginning of Paradise Lost between "Of man's first disobedience" and "Sing, heavenly Muse." Compare also the beginning of Paradise Lost, Book II.:

"High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold—
Satan exalted sat."

with the opening of Keats' Hyperion:

"Deep in the shady sadness of a vale,
Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn,
Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star—
Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone."

32. In a long conditional sentence put the "if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.

Everyone will see the flatness of "Revenge thy father's most unnatural murder, if thou didst ever love him," as compared with the suspense that forces an expression of agony from Hamlet in—

"Ghost. If thou didst ever thy dear father love—
Hamlet. O, God!
Ghost. Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder."

The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is long and complicated, and when it precedes the antecedent or "if-clause." "I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, and to show you the objects of interest in our city, and the beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood, if you were here." Where the "if-clause" comes last, it ought to be very emphatic: "if you were only here."

The introduction of a clause with "if" or "though" in the middle of a sentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when a great part of the sentence depends on "that:" "His enemies answered that, for the sake of preserving the public peace, they would keep quiet for the present, though he declared that cowardice was the motive of the delay, and that for this reason they would put off the trial to a more convenient season." See (27).

33. Suspense[13] is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.

[Pg 31]

"Deserted by his friends, he was forced to have recourse to those that had been his enemies." Here, if we write, "He, deserted by his friends, was forced &c.," he is unduly emphasized; and if we write, "He was forced to have recourse to his enemies, having been deserted by his friends," the effect is very flat.

Of course we might sometimes write "He was deserted and forced &c." But this cannot be done where the "desertion" is to be not stated but implied.

Often, when a participle qualifying the subject is introduced late in the sentence, it causes positive ambiguity: "With this small force the general determined to attack the foe, flushed with recent victory and rendered negligent by success."

An excessive use of the suspensive participle is French and objectionable: e.g. "Careless by nature, and too much engaged with business to think of the morrow, spoiled by a long-established liberty and a fabulous prosperity, having for many generations forgotten the scourge of war, we allow ourselves to drift on without taking heed of the signs of the times." The remedy is to convert the participle into a verb depending on a conjunction: "Because we are by nature careless, &c.;" or to convert the participle into a verb co-ordinate with the principal verb, e.g. "We are by nature careless, &c., and therefore we allow ourselves, &c."

34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one hand," add clearness.—Take the following sentence:—"You must take this extremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, and failure disgraceful, as well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your country is endangered." Here, the meaning is liable to be misunderstood, till the reader has gone half through the sentence. Write "Either you must," &c., and the reader is, from the first, prepared for an alternative. Other suspensive conjunctions or phrases are partly, for our part; in the first place; it is true; doubtless; of course; though; on the one hand.

35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would cause ambiguity or obscurity.—The omission is particularly likely to cause obscurity after a Relative standing as Subject:—

"He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is suffering from his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit anyone else to give it advice."

The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of several Verbs. "All the pleasing illusions which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason."

[Pg 32]

36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene.

"He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all his companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and (to) John Smith in particular." Here, omit to, and the meaning may be "that helped all his companions, and John Smith in particular." The intervention of the verb and object, "helped" and "companions," causes this ambiguity.

37. When there are several Verbs at some distance from a Conjunction on which they depend, repeat the Conjunction.[14]

"When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years have made in the ranks of our national authors—and, above all, (when) we refer their rapid disappearance to the quick succession of new competitors—we cannot help being dismayed at the prospect that lies before the writers of the present day."

Here omit "when," and we at once substitute a parenthetical statement for what is really a subordinate clause.

In reporting a speech or opinion, "that" must be continually repeated, to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says with what others say.

"We might say that the Cæsars did not persecute the Christians; (that) they only punished men who were charged, rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, and committing the foulest abominations in secret assemblies; and (that) the refusal to throw frankincense on the altar of Jupiter was not the crime, but only evidence of the crime." But see (6 b).

37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than," "as," &c.

"I think he likes me better than you;" i.e. either "than you like me," or "he likes you."

"Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as did the Spaniard Olivares." Omit "did," and you cause ambiguity.

38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken, repeat the subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said.

"Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports, and populous cities—these are not the elements that constitute a great nation."

[Pg 33]

This repetition (though useful and, when used in moderation, not unpleasant) is more common with speakers than with writers, and with slovenly speakers than with good speakers.

"The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer some fair measure of reform, sufficient at least to satisfy the more moderate, and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever—I say, if we adopt so unwise a policy, the country is in such a condition that we may precipitate a revolution."

Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or repeated, the antecedent must often be repeated also. In the following sentence we have the Subject repeated not only in the final summary, but also as the antecedent:—

"But if there were, in any part of the world, a national church regarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation committed to its care; a church established and maintained by the sword; a church producing twice as many riots as conversions; a church which, though possessing great wealth and power, and though long backed by persecuting laws, had, in the course of many generations, been found unable to propagate its doctrines, and barely able to maintain its ground; a church so odious that fraud and violence, when used against its clear rights of property, were generally regarded as fair play; a church whose ministers were preaching to desolate walls, and with difficulty obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help of bayonets,—such a church, on our principles, could not, we must own, be defended."

39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, in a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."

In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has three terms:—

"To gossip(a) is a fault(b); to libel(a'), a crime(b'); to slander(a''), a sin(b'')."

In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how they contribute to the clearness of a long sentence:—

"Man, working, has contrived(a) the Atlantic Cable, but I declare that it astonishes(b) me far more to think that for his mere amusement(c), that to entertain a mere idle hour(c'), he has created(a') 'Othello' and 'Lear,' and I am more than astonished, I am awe-struck(b'), at that inexplicable elasticity of his nature which enables him, instead of turning away(d) from calamity and grief(e), or instead of merely defying(d') them, actually to make them the material of his amusement(d''), and to draw from the wildest agonies of the human spirit(e') a pleasure which is [Pg 34]not only not cruel(f), but is in the highest degree pure and ennobling(f')."

The neglect of climax produces an abruptness that interferes with the even flow of thought. Thus, if Pope, in his ironical address to mankind, had written—

"Go, wondrous creature, mount where science guides;
Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides;
Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule"—

the ascent would have been too rapid. The transition from earth to heaven, and from investigating to governing, is prepared by the intervening climax—

"Instruct the planets in what orbs to run;
Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun;
Go, soar with Plato to th' empyreal sphere,
To the first good, first perfect, and first fair."

40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet descends, feebleness and sometimes confusion is the result. The descent is called "bathos."

"What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the animated remonstrances of the unfortunate prisoners?"

"She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues, graceful in her movements, winning in her address, a kind friend, a faithful and loving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she played beautifully on the pianoforte."

Intentional bathos has a humorous incongruity and abruptness that is sometimes forcible. For example, after the climax ending with the line—

"Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule,"

Pope adds—

"Then drop into thyself, and be a fool."

40 a. A new construction should not be introduced without cause.—A sudden and apparently unnecessary change of construction causes awkwardness and roughness at least, and sometimes breaks the flow of the sentence so seriously as to cause perplexity. Thus, write "virtuous and accomplished," or "of many virtues and accomplishments," not "of many virtues and accomplished;" "riding or walking" or "on foot or horseback," not "on foot or riding." In the same way, do not put adjectives and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, in too close juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following:—

"He had good reason to believe that the delay was not an accident (accidental) but premeditated, and for supposing (to suppose, or else, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong both by art and naturally (nature), would be forced by the treachery of the governor and the indolent (indolence of the) general to capitulate within a week."

[Pg 35]

"They accused him of being bribed (receiving bribes from) by the king and unwilling (neglecting) to take the city."

41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness.—The meaning of liberal in the following sentence is ascertained by the antithesis:—

"All the pleasing illusions which made power(a) gentle(b) and obedience(a') liberal(b') ... are now to be destroyed."

There is a kind of proportion. As gentleness is to power, so liberality (in the sense here used) is to obedience. Now gentleness is the check on the excess of power; therefore liberal here applies to that which checks the excess of obedience, i.e. checks servility. Hence liberal here means "free."

The contrast also adds force. "They aimed at the rule(a), not at the destruction(a'), of their country. They were men of great civil(b) and great military(b') talents, and, if the terror(c), the ornament(c') of their age."

Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome:—

"Who can persuade where treason(a) is above reason(a'), and might(b) ruleth right(b'), and it is had for lawful(c) whatsoever is lustful(c'), and commotioners(d) are better than commissioners(d'), and common woe(e) is named common wealth(e')?"

42. Epigram.—It has been seen that the neglect of climax results in lameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent produces amusement: and when the descent is intentional and very sudden, the effect is striking as well as amusing. Thus:—

(1) "You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous," is a climax.

(2) "You are not vicious, you are vice," is not climax, nor is it bathos: it is epigram.[15]

Epigram may be defined as a "short sentence expressing truth under an amusing appearance of incongruity." It is often antithetical.

"The Russian grandees came to
    court dropping pearls
{ and diamonds," climax.
and vermin," epigram.
"These two nations were divided
    by mutual fear
{ and the bitter remembrance
    of recent losses," climax.
and mountains," epigram.

There is a sort of implied antithesis in:—

"He is full of information—(but flat also) like yesterday's Times."

"Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large vocabulary."

[Pg 36]

The name of epigram may sometimes be given to a mere antithesis; e.g. "An educated man should know something of everything, and everything of something."

43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought.

"This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, leaving behind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numerous family, of whom three were sons; one of them, George, the eldest, heir to his father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland, where most of his father's property was situate, and shortly afterwards elected member for the county, which had for several generations returned this family to serve in Parliament." Here we have (1) the "great and good man," (2) "George," (3) "the county," disputing which is to be considered the principal subject. Two, if not three sentences should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoid a long sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on one level. It is called heterogeneous.

44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of each sentence.—Leave out the conjunctions and other connecting words, and it will be seen that the following sentences lose much of their meaning:—

"Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace. His biographer (accordingly) insists on our confessing, that, if the young cornet had remained in the service, he would have been one of the ablest commanders that ever lived. (But) this is not all. Pitt (, it seems,) was not merely a great poet in esse and a great general in posse, but a finished example of moral excellence.... (The truth is, that) there scarcely ever lived a person who had so little claim to this sort of praise as Pitt. He was (undoubtedly) a great man. (But) his was not a complete and well-proportioned greatness. The public life of Hampden or of Somers resembles a regular drama which can be criticised as a whole, and every scene of which is to be viewed in connection with the main action. The public life of Pitt (, on the other hand,) is," &c.

The following are some of the most common connecting adverbs, or connecting phrases: (1) expressing consequence, similarity, repetition, or resumption of a subject—accordingly, therefore, then, naturally, so that, thus, in this way, again, once more, to resume, to continue, to sum up, in fact, upon this; (2) expressing opposition—nevertheless, in spite of this, yet, still, however, but, on the contrary, on the other hand; (3) expressing suspension—undoubtedly ... but;[Pg 37] indeed ... yet; on the one hand ... on the other; partly ... partly; some ... others.

Avoid a style like that of Bishop Burnet, which strings together a number of sentences with "and" or "so," or with no conjunction at all:

"Blake with the fleet happened to be at Malaga, before he made war upon Spain; and some of his seamen went ashore, and met the Host carried about; and not only paid no respect to it, but laughed at those who did." Write "When Blake &c."

45. The connection between two long sentences sometimes requires a short intervening sentence, showing the transition of thought.

"Without force or opposition, it (chivalry) subdued the fierceness of pride and power; it obliged sovereigns to submit to the soft collar[16] of social esteem, compelled stern authority to submit to elegance, and gave a dominating vanquisher of laws to be subdued by manners. But now (all is to be changed:) all the pleasing illusions which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason." If the words italicized were omitted, the transition would be too abrupt: the conjunction but alone would be insufficient.

FOOTNOTES:

[5] For, at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes causes temporary doubt, while the reader is finding out whether it is used as a conjunction or preposition.

[6] It should refer (1) either to the Noun immediately preceding, or (2) to some Noun superior to all intervening Nouns in emphasis. See (25).

[7] So useful that, on mature consideration, I am disposed to adopt "that" here and in several of the following exceptional cases.

[8] Of course "and which" may be used where "which" precedes.

[9] "That which," where that is an object, e.g. "then (set forth) that which is worse," St. John ii. 10, is rare in modern English.

[10] Sometimes the emphatic Adverb comes at the beginning, and causes the transposition of an Auxiliary Verb, "Gladly do I consent."

[11] Of course punctuation will remove the ambiguity; but it is better to express oneself clearly, as far as possible, independently of punctuation.

[12] Professor Bain.

[13] See (30).

[14] The repetition of Auxiliary Verbs and Pronominal Adjectives is also conducive to clearness.

[15] Professor Bain says: "In the epigram the mind is roused by a conflict or contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really conveyed."

[16] This metaphor is not recommended for imitation.


BREVITY.

46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement. See (13).

"The cares and responsibilities of a sovereign often disturb his sleep," is not so brief as "Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown," where the effect of care on the mind is assimilated to the effect of a heavy crown pressing on the head.

47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular terms. Thus: "He devours literature, no matter of what kind," is shorter than, "Novels or sermons, poems or histories, no matter what, he devours them all."

[Pg 38]

47 a. A phrase may be expressed by a word.

"These impressions can never be forgotten, i.e. are indelible."

"The style of this book is of such a nature that it cannot be understood, i.e. unintelligible."

The words "of such a nature that" are often unnecessarily inserted. See the extract from Sir Archibald Alison.

48. Participles can often be used as brief (though sometimes ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.

"Hearing (when he heard) this, he advanced." See (7) for more instances. So "phrases containing conjunctions" means "phrases that contain conjunctions." "This done, (for, when this was done) he retired."

Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted. "France at our doors, he sees no danger nigh," for "France being" or "though France is."

49. Participles and participial adjectives may be used like Adjectives, as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.

"The never-ceasing wind," "the clamouring ocean," "the drenching rain," are instances. The licence of inventing participial adjectives by adding -ing to a noun, is almost restricted to poetry. You could not write "the crannying wind" in prose.

50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being expressed at length. Thus, instead of "The spirit of Christianity was humanizing, and therefore &c.," or "Christianity, since it was (or being) of a humanizing spirit, discouraged &c.," we can write more briefly and effectively, "Gladiatorial shows were first discouraged, and finally put down, by the humanizing spirit of Christianity." So instead of "The nature of youth is thoughtless and sanguine, and therefore &c.," we can write, "The danger of the voyage was depreciated and the beauty of the island exaggerated by the thoughtless nature of youth."

Sometimes a mere name or epithet implies a statement. "It was in vain that he offered the Swiss terms: war was deliberately preferred by the hardy mountaineers," i.e. "by the Swiss, because they were mountaineers and hardy." "The deed was applauded by all honest men, but the Government affected to treat it as [Pg 39]murder, and set a price upon the head of (him whom they called) the assassin." "The conqueror of Austerlitz might be expected to hold different language from the prisoner of St. Helena," i.e. "Napoleon when elated by the victory of Austerlitz," and "Napoleon when depressed by his imprisonment at St. Helena."

Caution.—Different names must not be used for the same person unless each of them derives an appropriateness from its context. Thus, if we are writing about Charles II., it would be in very bad taste to avoid repeating "he" by using such periphrases as the following: "The third of the Stewarts hated business," "the Merry Monarch died in the fifty-fourth year of his age," &c.

51. Conjunctions may be omitted. The omission gives a certain forcible abruptness, e.g. "You say this: I (on the other hand) deny it."

When sentences are short, as in Macaulay's writings, conjunctions may be advantageously omitted.

Where a contrast is intended, the conjunction but usually prepares the way for the second of the two contrasted terms: "He is good but dull." Where and is used instead of but, the incongruity savours of epigram: "He always talks truthfully and prosily." "He is always amusing and false."

51 a. The Imperative Mood may be used for "if."

"Strip (for, if you strip) Virtue of the awful authority she derives from the general reverence of mankind, and you rob her of half her majesty."

52. Apposition may be used so as to convert two sentences into one.

"We called at the house of a person to whom we had letters of introduction, a musician, and, what is more, a good friend to all young students of music." This is as clear as, and briefer than, "He was a musician, &c."

53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common subject of several verbs, (2) the common object of several verbs or prepositions.

(1) "He resided here for many years, and, after he had won the esteem of all the citizens, (he) died," &c. So, (2) "He came to, and was induced to reside in, this city," is shorter than "He came to this city, and was induced to reside in it."

Such condensation often causes obscurity, and, even where there is no obscurity, there is a certain harshness in pausing on light, unemphatic words, such as to, in, &c., as in the first example.

54. Tautology.—The fault of repeating the same word several times unnecessarily is called tautology, e.g.:

"This is a painful circumstance; it is a circumstance that I [Pg 40]much regret, and he also will much regret the circumstance." But the fault is not to be avoided by using different words to mean the same thing, as, "This is a painful event; it is a circumstance that I much regret, and he also will greatly lament the occurrence." The true remedy is to arrange the words in such a manner that there may be no unnecessary repetition, thus: "This is a painful circumstance, a circumstance that causes me, and will cause him, deep regret."

The repetition of the same meaning in slightly different words is a worse fault than the repetition of the same word. See, for examples, the extract from Sir Archibald Alison, at the end of the book. Thus "A burning thirst for conquests is a characteristic of this nation. It is an ardent passion that &c." Other instances are—"The universal opinion of all men;" "His judgment is so infallible that it is never deceived," &c.

55. Parenthesis may be used with advantage to brevity.

"We are all (and who would not be?) offended at the treatment we have received," is shorter and more forcible than the sentence would have been if the parenthesis had been appended in a separate sentence: "Who, indeed, would not be offended?"

Extreme care must, however, be taken that a parenthesis may not obscure the meaning of a long sentence.

56. Caution: let clearness be the first consideration. It is best, at all events for beginners, not to aim so much at being brief, or forcible, as at being perfectly clear. Horace says, "While I take pains to be brief, I fall into obscurity," and it may easily be seen that several of the rules for brevity interfere with the rules for clearness.

Forcible style springs from (1) vividness and (2) exactness of thought, and from a corresponding (1) vividness and (2) exactness in the use of words.

(1) When you are describing anything, endeavour to see it and describe it as you see it. If you are writing about a man who was killed, see the man before you, and ask, was he executed, cut down, run through the body, butchered, shot, or hanged? If you are writing about the capture of a city, was the city stormed, surprised, surrendered, starved out, or demolished before surrender? Was an army repelled, defeated, routed, crushed, or annihilated?

(2) Exactness in the use of words requires an exact knowledge of their meanings and differences. This is a study by itself, and cannot be discussed here.[17]

FOOTNOTES:

[17] See English Lessons for English People, pp. 1-53.


[Pg 41]

EXERCISES

For an explanation of the manner in which these Exercises are intended to be used, see the Preface.

A number in brackets by itself, or followed by a letter, e.g. (43), (40 a), refers to the Rules.

Letters by themselves in brackets, e.g. (b), refer to the explanations or hints appended to each sentence.

N.B..—(10 a) refers to the first section of Rule (10); (10 a') to the Rule following Rule (10).

1. "Pleasure and excitement had more attractions for him than (a) (36) (37 a) his friend, and the two companions became estranged (15 a) gradually."

(a) Write (1) "than for his friend," or (2) "than had his friend," "had more attractions than his friend."

2. "(a) He soon grew tired of solitude even in that beautiful scenery, (36) the pleasures of the retirement (8) which he had once pined for, and (36) leisure which he could use to no good purpose, (a) (30) being (15) restless by nature."

(a) This sentence naturally stops at "purpose." Also "being restless" seems (wrongly) to give the reason why "leisure" could not be employed. Begin "Restless by nature...."

3. "The opponents of the Government are naturally, and not (a) (40 a) without justification, elated at the failure of the bold attempt to return two supporters of the Government at the recent election, (b) (10 a') which is certainly to be regretted."

(a) "unjustifiably." (b) Write, for "which," either (1) "an attempt that &c.," or (2) "a failure that &c."

4. "Carelessness in the Admiralty departments has co-operated with Nature to weaken the moral power of a Government that particularly needs to be thought efficient in (a) (5) this[Pg 42] respect, (b) (29) to counterbalance a general distrust of its excessive desire (c) (47 a) to please everybody in Foreign Affairs."

(a) Write "the Navy." (b) Instead of "to" write "in order to," so as to distinguish the different infinitives, (c) "obsequiousness."

5. "(a) He was sometimes supported by Austria, who, oddly enough, appears under Count Beust to have been more friendly to Italy than (37 a) France, (30) in this line of action."

(a) Begin with "In this line of action." Why? (b) Write "than was France" or "than France was."

6. "There was something so startling in (a) (5) this assertion, (a) (4) that the discoveries of previous investigators were to be (b) (47 a) treated as though they had never been made, and (4) that one who had not yet (47 a) attained the age of manhood had superseded the grey-headed philosophers (8) who had for centuries patiently sought after the truth, (4) that (a) (5) it naturally provoked derision."

(a) "This," "that," and "it," cause a little perplexity. Write "The startling assertion that the discoveries...." (b) "ignored." (c) "a mere youth," "a mere stripling."

7. "One of the recommendations (on which very (a) (26) (47, a) much depended) of the Commission was that a council in each province should establish smaller councils, each to have the oversight of a small district, and (b) (37) report to a central council on the state of Education in (c) (5) it."

(a) Write "cardinal recommendations." Derive "cardinal." (b) Write, either (1) "and should report," or (2) "and to report." (c) Write "in its province," or "district."

8. "At this (a) (1) period an (b) (11) event (c) (1) transpired that destroyed the last hopes of peace. The king fell from his horse and died two hours after the fall (d) (30), which was occasioned by his horse's stumbling on a mole-hill, while he was on his return from reviewing his soldiers."

(a) What is a "period"? (b) Express the particular kind of event ("accident"). (c) What is the meaning of "transpired"? (d) Transpose thus: "While the king was on his return ... his horse ...; the king fell and &c." The cause should precede the effect.

9. "He determined (c) on selling all his estates, and, as soon as this was done (40 a), to (c) quit the country, (a) (33) believing that his honour demanded this sacrifice and (40) (40 a) in (b) the hope of satisfying his creditors."

(a) Begin with "Believing that &c." (b) "hoping thereby to satisfy &c." (c) "to sell" or "on quitting.".

[Pg 43]

10. "He read patiently on, Leading Articles, Foreign Correspondence, Money Article and all; (a) (43) during which his father fell asleep, and he (b) went in search of his sister."

Point out the absurdity of "during which" applied to the last part of the sentence. (a) "Meanwhile." (b) Insert "then."

11. "The general was quite (a) (1) conscious (40 a) how treacherous were the intentions of those who were (b) (49) entertaining him, and (40 a) of the dangers from which he had escaped (15) lately."

(a) Distinguish between "conscious" and "aware." (b) "entertainers."

12. "If certain (a) (11) books had been published a hundred years ago, there can be no doubt that certain recent (b) (11) historians would have made great use of them. But it would (c) (15 b) not, on that account, be judicious in a writer of our own times to publish an edition of the works of one of these (b) (11) historians, in which large extracts from these books should be incorporated with the original text."

(a) "Mrs. Hutchinson's Memoirs." (b) "Mr. Hume." (c) Add at the end of the sentence, "Surely not."

13. "He made no attempt to get up a petition, (32) though he did not like the new representative quite so well as (a) (37 a) his colleagues."

(a) "as did his colleagues" or "as he liked his colleagues."

14. "Though he was (a) (15) obstinate and (15) unprincipled, yet he could not face an angered father (15 a) in spite of his effrontery."

(a) Begin with "Obstinate."

15. "He was known to his country neighbours (a) (15) during more than forty years as a gentleman of cultivated mind, (40 a) whose principles were high, (40 a) with polished address, happy in his family, and (b) (40 a) actively discharging local duties; and (40 a) among political men, as an honest, industrious, and sensible member of Parliament, (40 a) without (c) eagerness to display his talents, (40 a) who (10 g) was stanch to his party, and attentive to the interests of those whose (d) (47 a) representative he was."

(a) "During more &c.," is emphatic, and affects the latter as well as the former half of the sentence: hence it should stand first. (b) "in the discharge of." (c) "not eager." (d) Condense into one word.

[Pg 44]

16. "The poor think themselves no more disgraced by taking bribes at elections than (a) (37 a) the rich by offering them."

(a) Write (1) "Than the rich think themselves disgraced," or (2) "Than they think the rich disgraced."

17. "We are told that the Sultan Mahmoud, by his perpetual wars, (a) (41) and his tyranny, (a) (41) had filled his dominions with (b) (1) misfortune and (c) (11) calamity, and greatly (d) (11) diminished the population of the Persian Empire. This great Sultan had (e) (50) a Vizier. We are not (f) (55) (15) informed whether he was a humorist or an enthusiast, (g) but he pretended (h) that he had learned from (i) (11) some one how to understand the language of birds, so that he (j) (5) knew what was said by any bird that opened its mouth. (k) (44) One evening he was with the Sultan, returning from hunting. They saw a couple of owls which (10 g) were sitting upon a tree (l) (8) which grew near an old wall out of a heap of rubbish. The Sultan said (6) he should like to know what the two owls were saying to one another, and asked the (m) Vizier to listen to their discourse and give him an account of it. The Vizier, (n) (31) pretending to be very attentive to the owls, approached the tree. He (o) returned to the Sultan and said that (6) he had heard part of their conversation, but did not wish to tell him what it was. (p) (5) He, not (q) (31) being satisfied with this answer, forced him to repeat everything the owls had said (20) exactly. (r) (44) (5) (6) He told (5) him that the owls were arranging a treaty of marriage between their children, and that one of them, after agreeing to settle five hundred villages upon the female owl, had prayed (6) that God would grant a long life to Sultan Mahmoud, because as long as he reigned over them they would never want ruined villages. The story says (s) that (t) (5) he was touched with the fable, (30) and (s) that he (a) (39) from that time forward consulted (15) the good of his people, and that he rebuilt the towns and villages (v) which had been destroyed."

(a) "abroad ... at home." (b) "ruin." (c) "desolation." (d) "half unpeopled." (e) "The Vizier of &c." (f) "We are not informed" is emphatic, and therefore should be inverted, "whether he was, &c., we are not informed." (g) "but he" will be omitted when "the Vizier" is made the subject of "pretended." (h) "Pretended" once meant "claimed," "professed." Write "professed." (i) "a certain dervish." (j) Introduce a new subject that you may substitute "Vizier" for "he," thus: "so that not a bird could open its mouth, but the Vizier knew &c." (k) "As he was, one evening, &c." (l) Note that the tree is represented as growing out of ruins. This is in accordance with the story of the mischief Mahmoud had done. (m) Omit this. (n) "Suspense" is out of place in a simple narrative like this; the sentence therefore ends with "owls." (o) "Upon his return." (p) "The Sultan" (q) "would not be satisfied." (r) "You must know then, &c." (s) Omit. (t) "so touched ... that." (u) end with "people." (v) Addison here uses[Pg 45] "which" probably because of the preceding "that." We have to choose between sound and clearness. "Which" implies that all the villages in the country had been destroyed, whereas the country had been only (see above) "half unpeopled."

18. "Though this great king never permitted any pastime to interfere with the duties of state, which he considered to be superior to (54) all other claims and of paramount importance, and (a) (37) kept himself so far under control that he allowed no one pursuit or amusement to run to any excess, yet he took (54) great pleasure in the chase, of which he was (b) (2) excessively (54) fond, and for the purposes of which he created several large parks of considerable (54) magnitude."

(a) Either repeat "though," or else strikeout the first "though" and begin a new sentence after "excess." (b) Point out the contradiction between "excessively" and what precedes.

19. "To inundate (a) (11) their land, to man their ships, to leave their country, with all its miracles of art and industry, its cities, its villas, and its (b) (11) pastures buried under the waves (c) (11); to bear to a distant climate their (d) (11) faith and their old (e) (11) liberties; to establish, with auspices that (10 a) might perhaps be happier, the new (f) (11) constitution of their commonwealth, in a (g) (11) foreign and strange (h) (11) land, in the Spice Islands of the Eastern Seas, (38) were the plans which they had the spirit to form."

(a) Introduce "dykes." (b) Introduce something peculiar to the Dutch, e.g. "canals," "tulip gardens." (c) "of the German Ocean." (d) The Dutch were Calvinists. (e) The country was in old times "Batavia," so that "Batavian" would be a fit epithet to denote what the Dutch had inherited from their forefathers. (f) "Stadthaus," the German for "town-hall." (g) "other stars." (h) "strange vegetation."

20. "During twenty years of unexampled prosperity, during (a) which the wealth of the nation had shot (14 a) up and extended its branches on every side, and the funds had (14 a) soared to a higher point than had been ever attained before, (b) (15) speculation had become general."

(a) Omit. (b) Begin a new sentence: "This, or Prosperity, had increased the taste for speculation."

21. "At that time (a) (16) a mere narrow-minded pedant (for he deserves no better name) had been set up by the literary world as a great author, and as the supreme (b) critic, alone qualified to deliver decisions which could never be (b) reversed upon (15 a) the literary productions of the day."

[Pg 46]

(a) End with " ... one who was—for he deserves no better name—a mere narrow-minded pedant." (b) "Which could never be reversed" can be expressed in one word; or else "the supreme ... reversed" may be condensed into a personification: "a very Minos of contemporary criticism."

22. "With the intention of fulfilling his promise, and (40 a) intending also to clear himself from the suspicion that attached to him, he determined to ascertain how (40 a) far this testimony was corroborated, and (a) (40 a) the motives of the prosecutor, (b) (43) who had begun the suit last Christmas."

(a) "what were." (b) Begin a new sentence, "The latter &c.," or "The suit had been begun &c."

23. "The Jewish nation, relying on the teaching of their prophets, looked forward to a time when its descendants should be as numerous as the heavenly (11) bodies, and when the products (a) (11) of the earth should be so increased as to create an abundant (54) plenty, when each man should rest beneath the shade of his own (a) (11) trees, and when the instruments (11) of war should be converted to the (11) uses of peace."

(a) Mention some "products," "trees" of Palestine.

24. "He replied (32), when he was asked the reason for his sudden unpopularity, that he owed it to his refusal to annul the commercial treaty, (a) (8) which (10 a') gave great displeasure to the poorer classes."

(a) Point out the ambiguity, and remove it by (8) or (10 a').

25. "I saw my old schoolfellow again by mere accident when I was in London at the time of the first Exhibition, (19) walking down Regent Street and looking in at the shops."

Point out and remove the ambiguity.

26. "He remained in the House while his speech was taken into consideration; which (52) was a common practice with him, because the debates amused his sated mind, and indeed he used to say (a) (6 b) that they were sometimes as good as a comedy. His Majesty had certainly never seen a more (17) sudden turn in any comedy of intrigue, either at his own play-house or the Duke's, than that which this memorable debate produced."

(a) "and were sometimes, he used to say, as good &c."

27. "The Commons would not approve the war (20) expressly; neither did they as yet condemn it (20) expressly; and (a) (18) the [Pg 47]king might even have obtained a supply for continuing hostilities (19) from them, on condition of (b) redressing grievances connected with the (c) administration of affairs at home, among which the Declaration of Indulgence was a very important (d) (15 a) one."

(a) Write "they were even ready to grant the king &c." (b) Use the verb with a subject, (c) Condense all this into one adjective, meaning "that which takes place at home." (d) End with a noun, "importance," or "foremost place."

28. "Next to thinking clearly, (a) (5) it is useful to speak clearly, and whatever your position in life may hereafter be it cannot be such (54) as not to be improved by this, (b) so that it is worth while making almost any effort to acquire (c) it, if it is not a natural gift: (d) it being an undoubted (d) fact that the effort to acquire it must be successful, to some extent at least, if (d) it be moderately persevered in."

(a) "Next in utility ... comes speaking clearly—a power that must be of assistance to you &c." (b)" If, therefore, you cannot speak clearly by nature, you &c." (c) "this power." (d) Omit "fact;" "for undoubtedly, with moderate perseverance &c."

29. "It (a) (38) appears to me (15) a greater victory than Agincourt, a grander triumph of wisdom and faith and courage than even the English constitution or (b) liturgy, to have beaten back, or even fought against and stemmed in ever so small a degree, those basenesses that (c) (10 a) beset human nature, which are now held so invincible that the influences of them are assumed as the fundamental axioms of economic science."

(a) Begin with "To have beaten &c.," and end with "liturgy." (b) Repeat for clearness and emphasis, "the English." (c) "The besetting basenesses of &c."

30. "The (a) (2) unprecedented impudence of our youthful representative reminds us forcibly of the unblushing and (54) (40) remarkable effrontery (c) (which (26) he almost succeeds in equalling) of the Member for St. Alban's, whom our (b) (1) neophyte (b) (1) alluded to, in the last speech with which he favoured those whom (47 a) he represents, (19) as his pattern and example."

(a) Show that "unprecedented" is inconsistent with what follows. (b) What is the meaning of "neophyte," "alluded to"? (c) Begin a new sentence, "Our young adventurer &c.," and end with "and he almost succeeds in equalling his master."

31. "The (a) (1) veracity of this story is questionable, and there is the more reason for doubting the (a) (1) truth of the narrator, because in his remarks on the (1) observation of the Sabbath he [Pg 48]distinctly (a) (1) alludes to a custom that can be shown never to have existed."

(a) Distinguish between "veracity" and "truth," "observation" and "observance." Show the inconsistency between "allude" and "distinctly."

32. "It (a) (5) is a most just distribution, (10 a) which the late Mr. Tucker has dwelt upon so (b) largely in his works, between pleasures in which we are passive, and pleasures in which we are active. And I believe every attentive observer of human life will assent to (c) this position, that however (d) grateful the sensations may occasionally be in which we are passive, it is not these, but the latter class of our pleasures, (8) which constitutes satisfaction, (e) (38) which supply that regular stream of moderate and miscellaneous enjoyments in (10 c) which happiness, as distinguished from voluptuousness, consists."

(a) "There is great justice in &c." (b) Omit "so." (c) "admit." (d) Not often now used in this sense. (e) Repeat the antecedent, "I mean those (pleasures) &c."

33. "The prince seemed to have before him a limitless (54) prospect of unbounded prosperity, carefully (33) trained for the (a) tasks of the throne, and stimulated by the (a) pattern of his father, (b) who (43) breathed his (3) last suddenly at the age of sixty-two, just after the conclusion of the war."

(a) Find more appropriate words. (b) Begin a new sentence.

34. "On his way, he visited a son of an old friend (a) (25) who had asked him to call upon him on his journey northward. He (b) (5) was overjoyed to see him, and (c) he sent for one of his most intelligent workmen and told (d) him to consider himself at (e) his service, (30) as he himself could not take (f) him as he (g) wished about the city."

(a) If you mean that the "son" had "asked him," write "An old friend's son who;" if you mean that the "friend" had "asked him," write "He had been asked by an old friend to call, on his journey northward, upon his son. Accordingly he visited him on his way." (b) Use, instead of he, some name meaning "one who entertains others." (c) Use participle, (d) "The man." (e) "the stranger's." (f) "his guest." (g) Write "could have wished" to make it clear that "he" means "the host."

35. "Tillotson died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved both by King William and by Queen Mary (43), who nominated Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him."

36. "(a) The entertainment was arranged with a magnificence that was (b) perfectly stupendous and (c) most unprecedented, and [Pg 49]which quite kept up his Lordship's unrivalled reputation for unparalleled hospitality, and, thanks to the unequalled energy of Mr. Smith, who is rapidly becoming one of the most effective toast-masters in the kingdom, the toasts were given with a spirit quite unexampled on occasions of this nature; and indeed we were forcibly reminded in this respect of the inimitable entertainment of three years ago (2)."

(a) Omit most of the epithets, or soften them down. Point out the contradictions in the sentence as it stands. (b) Write "a remarkable magnificence that quite &c.," thus dispensing with the following "and." (c) Show that "most" is superfluous.

37. "If we compare Shakespeare with the other dramatic authors of the Elizabethan era, his wonderful superiority to them in the (15) knowledge of human nature is what (15 a) principally strikes us."

38. "The prince found himself at once in sore perplexity how to provide himself with the commonest comforts or even necessaries of life, when he landed on this desolate coast, being (33) accustomed to luxury."

39. "This make-shift policy recommended itself to the succeeding ministers (a) (50), both because they were timid and because they were prejudiced, and they were delighted to excuse (b) (13) themselves by quoting the example of one who (c) (34) had controlled the Liberals and humoured the Conservatives, (37) commended himself to the country at large by his unfailing good-humour, and (d) (44) (37) done nothing worthy of the name of statesman."

(a) "to the timidity and prejudices of &c." (b) "shelter themselves behind." (c) "while he had at once." (d) "had yet done."

40. "William Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights of English poetry, and a native of Stratford-on-Avon (14 a)."

41. "(15 b) I think, gentlemen, you must confess that any one of you would have done the same (32), if you had been tempted as I was then, placed starving and ragged among wasteful luxury and comfort, deliberately instigated to acts of dishonesty by those whom I had been taught from infancy to love, (a) praised when I stole, mocked or punished when I failed to (15 a) do (b) so."

(a) Insert another infinitive beside "love." "Love" produces "obedience." (b) Repeat the verb instead of "do so."

42. "So far from being the first (54) aggressor, he not (22) only refused to prosecute his old friend when a favourable opportunity [Pg 50]presented itself for revenging himself thus upon him, but also his friend's adviser, John Smith. Smith (a) at all (23) events suspected, if he did not know of the coming danger, and had given no information of it."

(a) If "at all events" qualifies "Smith," the sentence must be altered. "Yet, however innocent his friend may have been, at all events Smith suspected...." If the words qualify "suspected," place them after "suspected."

43. "It is quite true that he paid 5s. per day to English navvies, and even 6s., (19) in preference to 2s. 6d. to French navvies."

44. "Having climbed to the apex of the Righi to enjoy the spectacle of the sun-rise, I found myself so incommoded by a number of illiterate individuals who had emerged from the hotel for a (a) (1) similar purpose, that I determined to quit them at the earliest practicable period; and therefore, without stopping to partake of breakfast, I wended my way back with all possible celerity." (3)

(a) "the same."

45. "You admit that miracles are not natural. Now whatever is unnatural is wrong, and since, by your own admission, miracles are unnatural, it follows that miracles are wrong." (1)

46. "Who is the man that has dared to call into civilized alliance the (a) (41) inhabitant of the woods, to delegate to the (a) Indian the defence of our disputed rights?

(a) Insert some antithetical or other epithets.

47. "A (a) very (11) small proportion indeed of those who have attempted to solve this problem (b) (19) have succeeded in obtaining even a plausible solution."

(a) State what proportion succeeded, or, if you like, what failed: "not one in a hundred." (b) Begin, "Of all those that &c."

48. "To be suddenly (a) (47 a) brought into contact with a system (8) which forces one to submit to wholesale imposture, and to being (40 a) barbarously ill-treated, naturally repels (a) (15 a) one."

(a) Write, either (1) "Collision ... causes a natural repulsion," or (2) "When brought into contact ... one is naturally repelled," or (if "ill-treatment" is emphatic), (3) "One is naturally repelled by collision with &c."

49. "We annex a letter recently addressed by Mr. ——'s direction to the Editor of the ——, in contradiction of statements, equally untrue, which appeared in that periodical, and (a) (9) which the editor has undertaken to insert in the next number.... I [Pg 51]am sure that all must regret that statements so (b) (51) utterly erroneous should have (c) (23) first appeared in a publication of such high character."

(a) What the writer intended to express was that the editor had undertaken to insert, not the "statements," but the "contradiction." (b) Omit either "so" or "utterly." (c) "appeared first," or, "for the first time."

50. "This is a book which (10 a) is short and amusing, which (10 a) can be easily (a) understood, which (10 a) is admirably adapted for the purpose for which it (b) was (54) written; and (10 e) which ought to be more popular than the last work which (10 a) was published by the same author."

(a) Express "which can be understood" in one adjective. (b) "Its purpose."

51. "When thousands are left (19) without (40) pity and without (40) attention (19) on a field of battle, amid (40) the insults of an enraged foe and (40) the trampling of horses, while the blood from their wounds, freezing as it flows, binds them to the earth, and (40) they are exposed to the piercing air, it (15 a) must be indeed a painful scene."

The whole sentence must be remedied by (40).

52. "(a) The youth was naturally thoughtful, and disposed (19) besides by his early training—(31) which had been conducted with great care, the object of his parents being to pave (14) his way as far as possible over the stormy (14) sea of temptation and to lead him into the harbour of virtue—to a sincere (b) (1) remorse (19) for the (b) (1) crimes that he had committed in the sight of heaven, and also for his recent (b) (1) sin in breaking the laws of his country."

(a) First state the reasons for his being "disposed." "The youth was naturally thoughtful; moreover, his early training had been conducted with great care by his parents, whose &c. .... He was therefore disposed &c." (b) What is the difference between "remorse" and "repentance," between "sin" and "crime"?

53. "(a) One day (54) early in the morning, the general was approached by a messenger, (30) in the midst of the entanglements and perplexities which had unexpectedly surprised him, when the perilous hour of (54) danger was at hand, and (37), in spite of their promises, even the tribes that were well disposed (54) and friendly, were threatening to desert him, and (54) leave him to face the enemy (b) (23) alone."

Condense the sentence by omitting some of the italicized words, e.g. (a) "Early one morning." (b) Though there is no real ambiguity (unless a wrong emphasis is placed on "enemy"), yet, in strictness, "alone" ought to qualify "enemy." Write therefore, "alone in the face of the enemy."

[Pg 52]

54. "A man (a) (10 d) who neglected the ordinary duties of life, and, immersed in study, devoted himself to grand plans for the benefit of mankind, (b) (44) and refused to provide for the wants of those dependent on him, and suffered his aged relatives to become paupers because he would not help them, (c) would, in my opinion, (34) be a bad man, and not altogether (d) (40 a) without hypocrisy."

(a) "If a man." (b) "if he refused," or "while he refused." (c) "such a man" or "he." (d) "to some extent a hypocrite."

55. "I cannot believe in the guilt of (a) one (b) (10 e) who, whatever may have been said to the contrary, can be shown, and has been shown by competent testimony proceeding from those who are said to have carefully examined the facts, in spite (23) of many obstacles, to have resisted all attempts to (29) induce him to leave his situation, (c) (29) to consult his own interests and to (29) establish a business of his own."

(a) "his guilt;" (b) (1) "for, whatever &c.... it can be shown by &c.... that, in spite of &c., he resisted." Or (2) insert "in spite ... obstacles" between "have" and "carefully." (c) (1) "for the purpose of consulting ... and establishing." Or (2) write "and to consult his own interests by establishing &c."

56. "We must seek for the origin of our freedom, (a) (37) prosperity, and (a) (37) glory, in that and only (b) that[18] portion of our annals, (30) though it (c) is sterile and obscure. The great English people was (d) then formed; the notional (e) disposition began (d) then to exhibit those peculiarities which it has ever since (e) possessed; and our fathers (d) then became emphatically islanders, (f) in their politics, (a) feelings, and (a) manners, and (30 a) not merely in their geographical position."

(a) Repeat the Pronominal Adjective, (b) Express the emphatic "only that" by beginning the sentence thus: "It is in that portion of our annals &c." (c) Omit. (d) "It was then that &c." (e) Use words implying something more marked than "disposition," and more forcible than "possessed;" in the latter case, "retained." (f) Repeat "islanders."

57. "(a) He was the universal (54) favourite of (54) all (8) who knew him, and cemented many friendships at this period, (a) (33) (moving in the highest circle of society, and, as he (b) (50) had a (4 a) certain property, being independent of the profits of literature), and soon completely extinguished the breath of slander which at the outset of his career had threatened to sap the foundations of his reputation."

(a) Begin "Moving in &c." (b) "rendered independent of ... by &c." Show that Rule (14) is violated by the metaphors.

[Pg 53]

58. "The outward and material form of that city which, during the brief period which (10 a) is comprised in our present book, reached the highest pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory, was of this (a) (15) nature. The progress of the (b) (5) first has been already traced."

(a) Begin the sentence with "Such was." (b) By "the first" is meant "military glory."

59. "The detachment not only failed to take the fort, (30) spite of their numbers and the weakness of the garrison, but also to capture the small force that was encamped outside the town, and was, after some sharp fighting, driven back with inconsiderable loss."

Point out the ambiguity. Remedy it by inserting either "which," or "the assailants."

60. "(a) (b) Believing that these reforms can only (c) (21) be effected as public opinion is prepared for them, and that (5) this will be more or less advanced in different localities, the Bill of the Association, (a) (31) which has been for a (3) considerable period in draft, and will be introduced in the next Session of Parliament, provides for placing (d) (3) the control in regard to the points above-mentioned in the (3) hands of the ratepayers of each locality; the power to be exercised through representative Licensing Boards to be periodically elected by them."

(a) Place the parenthesis first, as an independent sentence: "The Bill of the Association has been ... Parliament." (b) What noun is qualified by "believing?" Write "In the belief." (c) "effected only so far as they are in accordance with public opinion, which &c." (d) "it, or, the Bill provides that the ratepayers ... shall receive control ... and shall exercise this control."

61. "I think they are very (1) nice persons, for they kept me amused for a long (a) (11) time together yesterday by their (1) nice stories all about what they (b) have experienced in Japan, where they had been for (a) ever so long, and (c) (43) where they said that the natives ripped up their (d) (5) stomachs."

(a) Mention some time. (b) "experiences" or "adventures." (c) "among other things, they told us &c." (d) "their own."

62. "To contend for advantageous monopolies, which are regarded with a dislike and a suspicion (a) which daily (10 a) increases, (30) however natural it may be to be annoyed at the loss of that which one has once possessed, (15 a) is useless."

(a) A compound adjective can be used, including "daily."

63. "Upon entering the rustic place of entertainment to partake of some refreshment, my nerves were horrified by lighting on a [Pg 54]number of boisterous individuals who were singing some species of harvest song, and simultaneously imbibing that cup which, if it cheers, also inebriates; and when, banished from their society by the fumes of the fragrant weed, I wended my way to the apartment which adjoined the one in which I had hoped to rest my weary limbs, I found an interesting assortment of the fairer sex, who were holding a separate confabulation apart from the revels of their rougher spouses."

Write "village inn," "next room," &c., for these absurd circumlocutions. See (3).

64. "When Burgoyne was born, in 1782, Napoleon and Wellington were both boys (11)."

Napoleon studied at Brienne, Wellington at Eton. Mention this, and, in order to imply the boyhood, call Wellington "Arthur Wellesley."

65. "An honourable friend of mine, who is now, I believe, near me—(38) to whom I never can on any occasion refer without feelings of respect, and, on this subject, (36) feelings of the most grateful homage; (38) whose abilities upon this occasion, as upon some former ones, are not entrusted merely to the perishable eloquence of the (a) day, but will live to be the admiration of that (a) hour when all of us are mute and most of us forgotten: (b) (38) has told you that prudence is (52) the first of virtues, and (52) can never be used in the cause of vice."

(a) Though "of the day" is a recognized expression for "ephemeral" or "transitory," yet to use "day" for a short time, and "hour" for a longer, is objectionable. Write moment for day. Else write future for hour. (b) "—this gentleman has told &c."

66. "To see the British artisan and his wife on the Sabbath, neat and clean and cheerful, with their children by their sides, (a) (19) disporting themselves under the open canopy of heaven, is (15) pleasant."

(a) There is no reasonable ground for mistaking the sense here, as the context makes it clear; but since Lord Shaftesbury was questioned whether he meant disporting to qualify "artisan and his wife" or "children," write "and, by their sides, their children disporting &c."

67. "Even if (a) it were attended with extenuating circumstances, such conduct would deserve severe reprobation, (b) and it is the more called for because it would seem that (c) it was the intention of the author of the crime, in perpetrating (e) it, to inflict all the misery that was possible, upon his victim." See (5).

(a) Omit "it were." (b) "which." (c) "to have been." (d) Express "author of the crime" in one word. (e) Use the noun.

[Pg 55]

68. "The (a) (1) observance of the heavenly bodies must have been attended with great difficulties, (b) (30) before the telescope was (a) (1) discovered, and it is not to be wondered at if the investigations of astronomers were often unsatisfactory, and failed to produce complete (a) (1) persuasion, (30) (15, a) under these disadvantages."

(a) What is the difference between "observance" and "observation," "discover" and "invent," "persuasion" and "conviction"? (b) Begin "Before &c."

69. "He plunged into the sea once more, (30) not content with his previous exertions. After a long and dangerous struggle, he succeeded in reaching a poor woman that was crying piteously for help, and (a) (35) was at last hauled safely to shore."

(a) Point put and remedy the ambiguity by inserting "he" or by writing "who," according to the meaning.

70. "Sir John Burgoyne himself, face to face with Todleben, became (a) (1) conscious of the difference between the fortifications of San Sebastian and of Sebastopol, (b) which (10 e) was (c) (12) very weak compared with Metz or Paris."

(a) What is the exact meaning of conscious? (b) Avoid the relative, by repeating the name, with a conjunction, (c) "weakness itself."

71. "Upon Richard's leaving the (c) stage, the Commonwealth was again set up; and the Parliament which Cromwell had (a) broken was brought together; but the army and they fell into new disputes: so they were again (a) broken by the army: and upon that the nation was like to fall into (b) (11) great convulsions."

(a) Modern Eng., "broken up." (b) "violently convulsed." (c) It is a question whether this metaphor is in good taste. The meaning is that Richard "retired from public life." It might be asserted that Richard, the Commonwealth, the Parliament are regarded as so many puppets on a "stage." But this is extremely doubtful. Make Parliament the principal subject: "When Richard retired ... and when the Commonwealth &c.... the Parliament was ... but, falling into a dispute with &c., it was...." See (18) and (43).

72. "What a revolution in the military profession! He began with (a) (11) unnecessary formality, and (b) (11) inefficient weapons, and ended with (c) (b) (11) greatly improved fire-arms."

(a) "pig-tail and pipe-clay." (b) "Six-pounders and flint-locks" are now inefficient compared with "twenty-four-pounders and breech-loaders." (c) Something is wanted antithetical to (a), perhaps "loose drill" or "open order."

73. "Children fear to go in the dark. Men fear death in the same way. The fear of children is increased by tales. So is the fear [Pg 56]of death. The contemplation of death, as the 'wages of sin,' and passage to another world, is holy and religious. The fear of it, as a tribute due unto nature, is weak. In religious meditations on death there is sometimes mixture of vanity and of superstition."

Insert connecting adverbs or conjunctions. See (44).

74. "I have often heard him reiterate (54) repeatedly that he would never again, if a safe (54) and secure path was open to him, prefer the perilous (54) road of danger, however alluring (54) and attractive the latter might be."

75. "I thought in my dream that when my friend asked me whether I did not observe anything curious in the conduct of the pigeons, I (a) (4 a) remarked that if any one of the birds was so bold as to take an atom from a heap of grain in the midst of them, (31) (which (b) a detachment guarded, and which, being continually increased and never eaten, seemed useless), all the rest turned against him and pecked him to death for the (c) (50) action."

(a) Point out the ambiguity. (b) This should come earlier in the sentence, and not as a parenthesis. "I noticed a heap of grain in the midst of them, guarded by ... Being continually ..., to all appearance, useless: yet." (c) "theft."

76. "If this low view of the royal office becomes generally adopted, then sovereigns who (8) have always hitherto commanded the respect of Englishmen will by degrees fall into disrespect."

Point out the ambiguity. Show how it might be removed (a) by punctuation, (b) by altering "who."

77. "I struck the man in self-defence. I explained this to the magistrate. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called to support my statements. He committed me to prison. He had the right to do this. It is a right that is rarely exercised in such circumstances. I remonstrated."

See (44). Insert conjunctions or connecting adverbs.

78. "He attained a very distinguished position by mere (15) perseverance and common sense, which (52) (10 a) qualities are perhaps mostly underrated, (30) though he was deficient in tact and not remarkable for general ability."

79. "Vindictiveness, which (a) (50) is a fault, (b) and which may be defined as anger (10 a) which is caused not by sin nor by crime but by personal injury, ought to be carefully distinguished [Pg 57]from resentment, which (a) (50) is a virtue, (b) and which is anger (49) which is natural and (c) right caused by an act (d) which is unjust, because it is unjust, (30 a) not because it is inconvenient."

(a) "The fault of vindictiveness;" "the virtue of resentment." (b) Omit (c) "Right" cannot be used as an adjective, but "righteous" can. (d) "an act of injustice."

80. "(a) He told his friend that (a) his brother was surprised that (a) he had given so small a contribution, for (a) he was (b) (12) a very rich man, in spite of (a) his recent losses and the bad state of trade, (19) (30) compared with himself."

(a) Use (6). (b) What Asian king was proverbial for wealth?

81. "(a) (15 b) It must be indeed wrong to (a) crucify a Roman citizen if to (b) (32) slay one is almost parricide, to (b) scourge him is a monstrous crime, and to (b) bind him is an outrage."

(a) "What must it be ...?"
(b) See (40).

82. "The universal (54) opinion of all the citizens was that the citadel had been (15) betrayed, (30) having been captured in broad daylight by a very small number of the enemy, and those unprovided with scaling ladders, and admitted by a postern gate, (15 a) and much wearied by a long march."

In any case "betrayed" must come at the end of a sentence. The sentence may be converted into two sentences: "The citadel had been captured.... Naturally therefore ...;" or, "The opinion ... for it had been captured...." Else, if one sentence be used, write "As the citadel had been captured &c."

83. "This author surpassed all those who were living (a) at the same time with him in the forcible (b) manner in which he could address (c) an appeal to the popular sympathy, and in the ease with which he could draw towards (a) himself the hearts of his readers."

(a) Express in one word. (b) "force with." (c) Omit.

84. "This great statesman was indeed a pillar of commerce, and a star in the financial world. He guided or impelled the people from the quicksands of Protection and false political economy to the safe harbour of Free Trade; and (a) (14 a) saved the country several millions."

(a) It would be well to literalize the preceding metaphors. Else the literal statement must be changed into a metaphor.

85. "The ministers were most unwilling to meet the Houses, (a) (43) (51) because even the boldest of them (though their counsels were lawless (15) and desperate) had too much value for his[Pg 58] (b) (11) personal safety to think of resorting to the (c) (12) unlawful modes of extortion that had been familiar to the preceding age."

(a) Begin a new sentence with "Lawless and desperate though their counsels had been &c." (b) "neck." (c) Insert some of these unlawful modes, "benevolences, ship-money, and the other &c."

86. "We will not (a) (15) pretend to guess what our grandchildren may think of the character of Lord Byron, as exhibited in (15 a) his poetry." No writer ever had the whole eloquence of scorn, misanthropy, and (a) (15) despair (15 a) so completely at his command. That fountain (b) (12) of bitterness was never dry."

(a) "We will not pretend to guess" and "despair" are intended by the author to be emphatic. (b) "Marah."

87. "The captain asked to be allowed fifty men, a supply of food, and one hundred and fifty breech-loaders. (44) The general replied coldly that he could not let his subordinate have (a) (4) anything that he wanted. (44) The captain was forced to set out (34) with an insufficient force, spite of the superabundance of soldiers doing nothing in the camp (34), and with every obstacle put in his way by a general who from the first had resolved not even to give him ordinary assistance, (b) (10 a') which the captain had for some time anticipated."

(a) Point out and remove the ambiguity. (b) Write, according to the meaning, " ... assistance that" or " ... a resolution that."

88. "I am a practical man, and disbelieve in everything (8) which is not practical; theories (a) which amuse philosophers and pedants have no attractions for me, (30) for this reason."

(a) What difference in the meaning would be caused by the use of "that" for the second "which"?

89. "Yet, when that discovery drew no other severity but the (11 a) turning (a) him out of office, and the (11 a) passing a sentence (b) condemning him to die for it (31) (which was presently pardoned, and he was after a short confinement restored to his liberty), all men believed that the king knew of the letter, (c) (43) and that (6 b) the pretended confession of the secretary was only collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's (d) (11 a) favouring popery, (e) (43) which still hung upon him, (30) notwithstanding his (e) writing on the Revelation, and his (e) affecting to enter on all occasions into controversy, (e) asserting in particular that the Pope was Antichrist."

(a) "expulsion from." (b) "a pretended sentence to death—a pretence that was soon manifested by his pardon and liberation." (c) Begin a new sentence: "'The secretary's pretended confession,' it was said, 'was &c.'" (d) "the suspicion that the king [Pg 59]favoured Popery." (e) The juxtaposition of the two verbal nouns, "writing" and "affecting," with the participle "asserting," is harsh. Write, "For, notwithstanding that he affected controversy, and attacked the Pope as Antichrist in his treatise on the Book of Revelation, the king was still suspected."

90. "The opinion that the sun is fixed was once too (a) (1) universal to be easily shaken, and a similar prejudice has often (b) rendered the progress of new inventions (15 a) very slow, (19) arising from the numbers of the believers, and not (36) the reasonableness of the belief."

(a) Write "general." Show the absurdity of appending "too" to "universal." (b) What single word can be substituted for "rendered slow"?

91. "The rest of the generals were willing to surrender unconditionally, (30) depressed by this unforeseen calamity; (4) only the young colonel, who retained his presence of mind, represented to them that they were increasing the difficulties of a position in itself very difficult (19) (15, a) by their conduct."

92. "To (a) (31) an author who is, in his expression of any sentiment, wavering between the (b) demands of perspicuity and energy (of which the (c) (40 a) former of course requires the first care, lest (40 a) he should fail of both), and (37) doubting whether the (d) phrase which (8) has (e) the most force and brevity will be (f) readily taken (g) in, it may (h) (3) be recommended to use both (d) expressions; first, (h) to expound the sense sufficiently to be clearly understood, and then (i) to contract it into the most compendious and striking form."

(a) Write "When an author &c." (b) Can be omitted. (c) Assimilate the constructions: "Of which the former must, of course, be aimed at first, lest both be missed." (d) Use "expression" or else "phrase" in both places. (e) Assimilate the construction to what follows; write "that is most forcible and brief." (f) Insert "also." (g) "understood." (h) "let him use ...; first let him expound." (i) Omit.

93. "When I say 'a great man,' I not (22) only mean a man intellectually great but also morally, (38) who (8) has no preference for diplomacy (a) (23) at all events which (10 a) is mean, petty, and underhanded to secure ends which (8) can be secured by an honest policy equally (20) well, (38) who (8) does not resemble Polonius, (b) who prefers to get at truth by untruthful tricks, and (b) who considers truth a carp which (10 g) is to be caught by the bait falsehood. We cannot call a petty intriguer great (c), (30) though we may be forced to call an unscrupulous man by that (15 a) name."

(a) "at all events no preference." (b) Why is who right here? If you like, you can write, "does not, like Polonius, prefer ... and consider." (c) End with "we cannot give the name to a petty intriguer."

[Pg 60]

94. "I regret that I have some (a) (3) intelligence which (10 a) is of a most (3) painful nature, and which I must tell you at once, though (b) I should like to defer it on (c) (40 a) account of your ill-health, and because (c) (40 a) you have already had many troubles, and (40 a) owing to the natural dislike which (8) a friend must always feel to say that (10 f) which is unpleasant. Many old friends in this district have turned against you: I scarcely like to write the words: only (21) I remain faithful to you, and I am sure you will believe that I am doing that (10 f) which is best for your interests."

(a) "news." (b) In a letter these words should remain is they are; but if a period is desired, they must (30) come last, after "unpleasant." (c) Write "because of your ill-health ... and the troubles ... and because of...."

95. "The general at once sent back word that the enemy had suddenly appeared on the other side of the river, and [(35) or (37)] then (a) retreated. (b) It was thought that (b) it would have shown more (c) (1) fortitude on his (3) part if he had attacked the fortifications, (d) which were not tenable for more than a week at all events. Such was the (54) universal opinion, at (23) least, of (54) all the soldiers."

(a) Point out the ambiguity. (b) "It was thought he would have shown &c." (c) Distinguish between "fortitude" and "bravery." (d) What would be the meaning if "that" were substituted for "which"? It will be perhaps better to substitute for "which," "since they."

96. "A notion has sprung up that the Premier, though he can legislate, cannot govern, and has attained an influence which renders it imperative, if this Ministry is to go on, that (a) it should be dispersed."

(a) Who or what "has attained"? Write "and this notion has become so powerful that, unless it is dispersed...."

97. "Those who are habitually silent (a) (3) by disposition and morose are less liable to the fault of exaggerating than those who are habitually (a) (3) fond of talking, and (40 a) of (a) (3) a pleasant disposition."

(a) Each of these periphrases must be condensed into a single adjective.

98. "This author, (a) (31) though he is not (b) altogether (c) guiltless of (b) occasional (c) faults of exaggeration, which are to be found as plentifully in his latest works as in those which he (d) published when he was beginning his career as an author, yet, notwithstanding these (e) defects, surpassed all those who were living[Pg 61] at the (f) same time with him in the clear (g) manner in which he could, as it were, see into the feelings of the people at large, and in the power—a power that indeed could not be (f) resisted—with which he drew (f) toward himself the sympathy of those who (f) perused his works." See (54).

(a) Convert the parenthesis into a separate sentence. (b) One of these words is unnecessary. (c) One of these is unnecessary. (d) Condense: "his earliest." (e) Omit these words as unnecessary. (f) Express all this in one word. (g) "clearness with."

99. "Among the North (a) (23) American Indians I had indeed heard of the perpetration of similar atrocities; but it seemed intolerable that such things should occur in a civilized land: and I rushed from the room at once, leaving the wretch where he stood, with his tale half told, (30) horror-stricken at his crime."

(a) Make it evident whether the speaker once lived among the North American Indians, or not, and show who is "horror-stricken."

100. "His (1) bravery under this painful operation and the (1) fortitude he had shown in heading the last charge in the recent action, (30) though he was wounded at the time and had been unable to use his right arm, and was the only officer left in his regiment, out of twenty who were alive the day before, (19) inspired every one with admiration."

Begin, "Out of twenty officers &c.... Though wounded &c.... he had headed." "The bravery he had then shown and...."

101. "Moral as well as (41) other considerations must have weight when we are selecting an officer (a) that (10 b) will be placed in a position that will task his intelligence (b) (18) and his fidelity."

(a) The repetition of "that" is objectionable. Use "to fill." (b) "and" can be replaced by some other conjunction to suit what precedes.

102. "It happened that at this time there were a few Radicals in the House who (8) could not forgive the Prime Minister for being a Christian."

Point out the difference of meaning, according as we read "who" or "that."

103. "It cannot be doubted (15 b) that the minds of a vast number of men would be left poor shrunken things, full of melancholy and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves, if (32) there were taken out of men's minds vain opinions, false valuations, imaginations as one (a) would, and the (15 a) like."

(a) The meaning (which cannot easily be more tersely expressed than in the original) is "castles in the air," "pleasant fancies."

[Pg 62]

104. "God never wrought a miracle to refute atheism, because His ordinary works refute it. (a) A little philosophy inclines man's mind to atheism: depth in philosophy brings men's minds back to religion. (44) While the mind of man looks upon second causes scattered, it may sometimes rest in them; (44) when it beholds the chain of them confederate and linked together, it must needs acknowledge a Providence. (44) That school which is most accused of atheism most clearly demonstrates the truth of religion."

(a) Insert a suspensive conjunction. See (34).

105. "The spirit of Liberty and the spirit of Nationality were once for all dead; (a) (5) it might be for a time a pious duty, but it could not continue always expedient or (c) (15) (18) profitable to (b) (13) mourn (c) (15 a) for their loss. Yet this is the (b) (13) feeling of the age of Trajan."

(a) Omit. (b) "To sit weeping by their grave;" "attitude." (c) Notice that "expedient or profitable" are emphatic, as is shown by "yet" in the next sentence. Make it evident therefore, by their position, that these words are more emphatic than "to mourn &c."

106. "(a) If we ask (15 b) what was the nature of the force by which this change was effected, (a) we find it to have been (b) the force that had seemed almost dead for many generations—(38) of theology."

(a) Omit these words. (b) Begin a new sentence: "It was a force &c."

107. "I remember Longinus highly recommends a description of a storm by Homer, because (a) (5) (c) he has not amused himself with little fancies upon the occasion, as authors of an inferior genius, whom he mentions, (b) (15 a) have done, (30) but (c) because he has gathered together those (d) (1) events which are the most apt to terrify the imagination, and (35) really happen in the raging of a tempest."

(a) "The poet." (b) Omit "have done" and write "like some authors." (c) Suspend the sentence by writing "the poet ... instead of ... has." (d) What is the word for "that which happens around one, or in connection with some central object?"

108. "To have passed (a) (3) in a self-satisfied manner through twenty years of office, letting things take their own course; to have (b) sailed with consummate sagacity, never against the tide of popular (c) judgement; to have left on record as the sole title to distinction among English ministers a peculiar art of (d) sporting with the heavy, the awful responsibility of a nation's destiny with the jaunty grace of a juggler (11) (e) playing with his golden ball; to have joked and intrigued, and bribed and (f) deceived, [Pg 63]with the result of having done nothing (g), (h) either for the poor, (h) or for religion (for (i) which indeed he did worse than nothing), (h) or for art and science, (h) or for the honour or concord or even the financial prosperity of the nation, (38) is surely a miserable basis on which the reputation of a great (15) statesman can be (k) (15 a) founded."

(a) "complacently." (b) "Sail" implies will and effort: use a word peculiar to a helpless ship, so as to contrast paradoxically with "sagacity." (c) Use a word implying less thought and deliberation. (d) With is too often repeated; write "bearing" so as to introduce the illustration abruptly. (e) "tossing." (f) Use a word implying a particular kind of "deceit," not "lying," but the next thing to "lying." (g) Insert the word with a preceding and intensifying adverb, "absolutely nothing." (h) Instead of "either," "or," repeat "nothing." (i) The parenthesis breaks the rhythm. Write "nothing, or worse than nothing." (k) "to found."

109. "A glance at the clock will make you (1) conscious that it is nearly three in the morning, and I therefore ask you, gentlemen, instead of wasting more time, to put this question to yourselves, 'Are we, or are we not, here, for the purpose of (1) eliminating the truth?'"

110. "The speech of the Right Honourable member, so far from unravelling (14) the obscurities of this knotty question, is eminently calculated to mislead his supporters (a) (8 a) who have not made a special study of it. It may be (b) (23) almost asserted of every statement (8) which he has made that the very (1) converse is the fact."

(a) The meaning appears to be, not "all his supporters," but "those of his supporters who:" the convenience of writing "his supporters that" is so great that I should be disposed to use "that." (b) "Every," not "asserted," requires the juxtaposition of "almost."

111. "The provisions of the treaty which (8) require the consent of the Parliament of Canada await its assembling."

Point out the meaning conveyed by which, and by that.

112. "Mrs. Smith demonstrated (26), in opposition to the general dictum of the press, that (a) there had been a reaction against woman's suffrage, that there had really been a gain of one vote in the House of Commons."

(a) Substitute "instead of," and erase the second "that."

113. "The practice of smoking hangs like a gigantic (14 a) cloud of evil over the country."

FOOTNOTES:

[18] That which treats of the thirteenth century.


[Pg 64]

CONTINUOUS EXERCISES.

CLEARNESS.

The following exercises consist of extracts from Burnet, Butler, and Clarendon, modernized and altered with a view to remove obscurity and ambiguity. The modernized version will necessarily be inferior to the original in unity of style, and in some other respects. The charm of the author's individuality, and the pleasant ring of the old-fashioned English, are lost. It is highly necessary that the student should recognize this, and should bear in mind that the sole object is to show how the meaning in each case might have been more clearly expressed.

Occasionally expressions have been altered, not as being in themselves obscure or objectionable, but as indicating a habit of which beginners should beware. For example, in the extract from Burnet, he is often altered, not because, in the particular context, the pronoun presents any obscurity, but because Burnet's habit of repeating he is faulty.

These exercises can be used in two ways. The pupil may either have his book open and be questioned on the reasons for each alteration, or, after studying the two versions, he may have the original version dictated to him, and then he may reproduce the parallel version, or something like it, on paper.

Lord Clarendon.

The principal faults in this style are, long heterogeneous sentences (43), use of phrases for words (47 a), ambiguous use of pronouns (5), excessive separation of words grammatically connected together (19).

ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.

(44) It will not be impertinent nor unnatural to this (50) present discourse, to set down in this place the present temper and constitution of both Houses of Parliament, and (34) of the court itself, (30) that (5) it may be the less wondered at, that so prodigious an alteration should be made in so short a time, and (37) the crown fallen so low, that it could neither support itself nor its own majesty, nor those who would (47 a) appear faithful to it.


And now, in order to explain, as far as possible, how so prodigious an alteration could take place in so short a time, and how the[19] royal power[Pg 65] could fall so low as to be unable to support itself, its dignity, or its faithful servants, it will be of use to set down here, where it comes most naturally, some account of the[20] present temper and composition, not only of both Houses of Parliament, but also of the court itself.


(Here follows a description of the House of Lords.)

ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.

In the House of Commons were many persons of wisdom and gravity, who (7) being possessed of great and plentiful fortunes, though they were undevoted enough to the court, (19) had all imaginable duty for the king, and affection to the government established (47 a) by law or ancient custom; (43) and without doubt, the major part of that (54) body consisted of men who had no mind to break the peace of the kingdom, or to make any considerable alteration in the government of Church or State: (43) and therefore (18) all inventions were set on foot from the (15) beginning to work upon (5) them, and (11) corrupt (5) them, (43) (45) by suggestions "of the dangers (8) which threatened all that was precious to the subject (19) in their liberty and their property, by overthrowing (47 a) or overmastering the law, and (47 a) subjecting it to an arbitrary (47 a) power, and by countenancing Popery to the subversion of the Protestant religion," and then, by infusing terrible apprehensions into some, and so working upon their fears, (6 b) "of (11 a) being called in question for somewhat they had done," by which (5) they would stand in need of (5) their protection; and (43) (45) raising the hopes of others, "that, by concurring (47 a) with (5) them (5) they should be sure to obtain offices and honours and any kind of preferment." Though there were too many corrupted and misled by these several temptations, and (19) others (40 a) who needed no other temptations than from the fierceness and barbarity of their (47 a) own natures, and the malice they had contracted against the Church and against the court; (43) yet the number was not great of those in whom the government of the rest (47 a) was vested, nor were there many who had the absolute authority (13) to lead, though there were a multitude (13) that was disposed to follow.

In the House of Commons there were many men of wisdom and judgment whose high position and great wealth disposed them, in spite of their indifference to the court, to feel a most loyal respect for the king, and a great affection for the ancient constitutional government of the country. Indeed, it cannot be doubted that the majority had no intention to break the peace of the kingdom or to make any considerable alteration in Church or State. Consequently, from the very outset, it was necessary to resort to every conceivable device for the purpose of perverting this honest majority into rebellion.

With some, the appeal was addressed to their patriotism. They were warned "of the dangers that threatened [all that was precious in] the liberty and property of the subject, if the laws were to be made subservient to despotism, and if Popery was to be encouraged to the subversion of the Protestant religion."[Pg 66]

The fears of others were appealed to. "There was danger," so[21] was said, "that they might be called to account for something they had done, and they would then stand in need of the help of those who were now giving them this timely warning." In others, hopes were excited, and offices, honours, and preferments were held out as the reward of adhesion.

Too many were led away by one or other of these temptations, and indeed some needed no other temptation than their innate fierceness and barbarity and the malice they had contracted against the Church and the court. But the leaders of the conspiracy were not many. The flock was large and submissive, but the shepherds were very few.

(44) (30) Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience in parliaments, where he had (50) served very long, and was always (50) a man of business, (7) being an officer in the Exchequer, (43) and of a good reputation generally, (30) though known to be inclined to the Puritan party; yet not of those furious resolutions against the Church as the other leading men were, and (44) wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford, who had nothing of that spirit.

Of these, Mr. Pym was thought superior to all the rest in parliamentary experience. To this advantage he added habits of business acquired from his continuous service in the Exchequer. He had also a good reputation generally; for, though known to be inclined to the Puritan party, yet he was not so fanatically set against the Church as the other leaders. In this respect he resembled the Earl of Bedford, to whom he was thoroughly devoted.[Pg 67]

(Here follow descriptions of Hampden and Saint John.)

ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.

It was generally believed that these three persons, with the other three lords mentioned before, were of the most intimate and entire trust with each other, and made the engine which (47 a) moved all the rest; (30) yet it was visible, that (15) Nathaniel Fiennes, the second son of the Lord Say, and Sir Harry Vane, eldest son to the Secretary, and Treasurer of the House, were received by them with full confidence and without reserve.

These three persons, with the three peers mentioned before, were united in the closest confidence, and formed the mainspring of the party. Such at least was the general belief. But it was clear that they also admitted to their unreserved confidence two others, (45) whom I will now describe,—Nathaniel Fiennes, second son of Lord Say, and Sir Harry Vane, eldest son of the Secretary, and Treasurer of the House.

The former, being a man of good parts of learning, and after some years spent in New College in Oxford, (43) of which his father had been formerly fellow, (43) that family pretending[23] and enjoying many privileges there, as of kin to the founder, (43) (19) had spent his time abroad in Geneva and amongst the cantons of Switzerland, (30) where he improved his disinclination to the Church, with which milk he had been nursed. From his travels he returned through Scotland (52) (which[24] few travellers took in their way home) at the time when (5) that rebellion was in bud: (30) (43) (44) and was very little known, except amongst (5) that people, which conversed (47 a) wholly amongst themselves, until he was now (15)[Pg 68] found in Parliament, (30) (43) (44) when it was quickly discovered that, as he was the darling of his father, so (5) he was like to make good whatsoever he had for many years promised.

Nathaniel Fiennes, a man of good parts, was educated at New College, Oxford, where[22] his family claimed and enjoyed some privileges in virtue of their kindred to the founder, and where[22] his father had formerly been a fellow. He afterwards spent some time in Geneva and in the cantons of Switzerland, where[22] he increased that natural antipathy to the Church which he had imbibed almost with his mother's milk.[24] By a singular coincidence, he came home through Scotland (not a very common route for returning travellers) just when the Scotch rebellion was in bud. For some time he was scarcely known beyond the narrow and exclusive circle of his sect, until at last he appeared in Parliament. Then, indeed, it was quickly discovered that he was likely to fulfil even the fond hopes of his father and the high promise of many years.

(5) The other, Sir H. Vane, was a man of great natural parts[25] (45) and of very profound dissimulation, of a quick conception, and of very ready, sharp, and weighty expression. He had an (50) unusual aspect, which, though it might naturally proceed from his father and mother, neither of which were beautiful persons, yet (19) made men think there was somewhat in him of extraordinary: and (52) his whole life made good that imagination. Within a very short time after he returned from his studies in Magdalen College in Oxford, where, (43) though he was under the care of a very worthy tutor, he lived not with great exactness, (43) he spent some little time in France, and more in Geneva, and, (43) after his return into England, (38) contracted a full prejudice and bitterness against the Church, both against the form of the government and the Liturgy, (43) which was generally in great reverence, (15 a) even with many of those who were not friends to (5) the other. In his giddiness, which then much displeased, or seemed to displease, (30) (43) his father, who still appeared highly conformable, and exceedingly sharp against those who were not, (5) he transported himself into New England, (43) a colony within few years before planted by a mixture of all religions,[26] which disposed the professors to dislike the government of the Church; who (30) (43) (44) were qualified by the king's charter to choose their own government and governors, under the obligation, "that every man should take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy;" (30) (43) (5) which all the first planters did, when they received their charter, before they transported themselves from hence, nor was there in many years after the least scruple amongst them of complying with those obligations: so far men were, in the infancy (15) of their schism, from refusing to take lawful oaths. (45) He was no sooner landed there, but his parts made him quickly taken notice of, (26) and very probably his quality, being the eldest son of a Privy-councillor, might give him some advantage; insomuch (51) that, when the next season came for the election of their magistrates, he was chosen their governor: (30) (45) (43) in which place he had so ill fortune (26) (his working and unquiet fancy raising and infusing a thousand scruples of conscience, which (5) they had not brought over with them, nor heard of before) (19) that he unsatisfied with them and they with him, he retransported himself into England; (30) (43) (44) having sowed such seed of dissension there, as grew up too prosperously, and miserably divided the poor colony into several factions, and divisions and persecutions of each (15 a) other, (30) (43) which still continue to the great (54) prejudice of that plantation: insomuch as some of (5) them, upon the ground of their first expedition, liberty of conscience, have withdrawn themselves from (5) their jurisdiction, and obtained other charters from the king, by which, (30) (43) in other forms of government, they have enlarged their plantations, within new limits adjacent to (5) (15 a) the other.their plantations, within new limits adjacent to (5) (15 a) the other.

Fiennes' coadjutor, Sir H. Vane, was a man of great natural ability.[25] Quick in understanding and impenetrable in dissembling, he could also speak with promptness, point, and weight. His singular appearance, though it might naturally proceed from his parents, who were not noted for their beauty, yet impressed men with the belief that he had in him something extraordinary, an impression that was confirmed by the whole of his life. His behaviour at Oxford, where he studied at Magdalen College, was not characterized, in spite of the supervision of a very worthy tutor, by a severe morality. Soon after leaving Oxford he spent some little time in France, and more in Geneva. After returning to England, he conceived an intense hatred not only against the government of the Church, which was disliked by many, but also against the Liturgy, which was held in great and general reverence.

Incurring or seeming to incur, by his giddiness, the displeasure of his father, who at that time, beside strictly conforming to the Church himself, was very bitter against Nonconformists, the young Vane left his home for New[Pg 69] England.

This colony had been planted a few years before by men of all sorts of religions, and their differences[26] disposed them to dislike the government of the Church. Now, it happened that their privilege (accorded by the king's charter) of choosing their own government and governors was subject to this obligation, "that every man should take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy." These oaths had been taken, not only by all the original planters, on receiving their charter, before leaving England, but also for many years afterwards, without exciting the slightest scruple. Indeed, scruples against lawful oaths were unknown[27] in the infancy of the English schism. But with the arrival of Vane all this was changed. No sooner had he landed than his ability, and perhaps to some extent his position, as eldest son of a Privy-councillor, recommended him to notice: and at the next election he was chosen Governor.

In his new post, his restless and unquiet imagination found opportunity for creating and diffusing a thousand conscientious scruples that had not been brought over, or ever even heard of, by the colonists. His government proved a failure: and, mutually dissatisfied, (45) governed and governor parted. Vane returned to England, but not till he had[Pg 70] accomplished his mischievous task, not till he had sown the seeds of those miserable dissensions which afterwards grew only too prosperously, till they split the wretched colony into distinct, hostile, and mutually persecuting factions. His handiwork still remains, and it is owing to (15) him that some of the colonists, on the pretext of liberty of conscience, the original cause of their emigration, have withdrawn themselves from the old colonial jurisdiction and have obtained fresh charters from the king. These men have established new forms of government, unduly enlarged their boundaries, and set up rival settlements on the borders of the original colony.

FOOTNOTES:

[19] The original metaphor uses the crown as a prop, which seems a confusion. Though the metaphor is so common as scarcely to be regarded as a metaphor, it is better to avoid the appearance of confusion.

[20] We sometimes say, briefly but not perhaps idiomatically, "the then sovereign," "the then temper," &c.

[21] The personality of the tempters and organizers of the conspiracy is purposely kept in the background.

[22] The relative is retained in the first two cases, because it conveys the reason why Fiennes was educated at New College; and in the third case, because the increased "antipathy" is regarded as the natural consequence of the residence in Calvinistic Geneva.

[23] Claiming.

[24] An insinuation of sedition seems intended.

[25] This sentence is a preliminary summary of what follows.

[26] If "which" is used here according to Rule (8), the meaning is, (a) "and their differences;" if it is used for "that," the meaning will be, (b) "all religions that were of a nature to dispose &c." I believe (a) is the meaning; but I have found difference of opinion on the question.

[27] The following words appear to be emphatic, bringing out the difference between the infancy and the development of schism.

Burnet.

The principal faults in Burnet's style are (a) the use of heterogeneous sentences (see 43); (b) the want of suspense (see 30); (c) the ambiguous use of pronouns (see 5); (d) the omission of connecting adverbs and conjunctions, and an excessive use of and (see 44); and (e) an abruptness in passing from one topic to another (see 45). The correction of these faults necessarily lengthens the altered version.

ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.

And his maintaining the honour of the nation in all foreign countries gratified the (1) vanity which is very natural (50) to Englishmen; (30) (43) of which he was so (15) (17 a) careful that, though he was not a crowned head, yet his (40 a) ambassadors had all the respects paid them which our (15) kings' ambassadors ever had: he said (6 b) the dignity of the crown was upon the account of the nation, of which the king was (50) only the representative head; so, the nation being the same, he would have the same regards paid to (41) his ministers.

He also gratified the English feeling of self-respect by maintaining the honour of the nation in all foreign countries. So jealous was he on this point that, though he was not a crowned head, he yet secured for his ambassadors all the respect that had been paid to the ambassadors of our kings. The king, he said, received respect simply as the nation's[Pg 71] representative head, and, since the nation was the same, the same respect should be paid to the[28] nation's ministers.

Another[29] instance of (5) this pleased him much. Blake with the fleet happened (50) to be at Malaga before he made war upon Spain: (44) and some of his seamen went ashore, and met the Host carried about; (44) and not only paid no respect to it, but laughed at those who did; (43) (30) (51) so one of the priests put the people upon resenting this indignity; and they fell upon (5) them and beat them severely. When they returned to their ship (5) they complained of (5) this usage; and upon that Blake sent a trumpet to the viceroy to demand the priest who was the chief (1) instrument in that ill-usage. The viceroy answered he had no authority over the (15) priests, and so could not dispose of him. Blake upon that sent him word that he would not inquire who had the (1) power to send the priest to him, but if he were not sent within three hours, he would burn their town; (43) and (5) they, being in no condition to resist him, sent the priest to him, (43) (44) who justified himself upon the petulant behaviour of the seamen.

(44) Blake answered that, if (5) he had sent a complaint to (5) him of(5) it, (5) he would have punished them severely, since (5) he would not suffer his men to affront the established religion of any place at which (5) he touched; but (5) (6) he took it ill, that he set on the Spaniards to do (5) it; for he would have all the world to know that an Englishman was only to be punished by an Englishman; (43) (44) and so he treated the priest civilly, and sent him back (30), being satisfied that he had him at his mercy.

The following instance of jealousy for the national honour pleased him much. When Blake was at Malaga with his fleet, before his war with Spain, it happened that some of his sailors going ashore and meeting the procession of the Host, not only paid no respect to it, but even laughed at those who did. Incited by one of the priests to resent the indignity, the people fell on the scoffers and beat them severely. On their return to the ship the seamen complained of this ill-usage, whereupon Blake sent a messenger to the viceroy to demand the priest who was the instigator of the outrage. The viceroy answered that he could not touch him, as he had no authority over the priests. To this Blake replied, that he did not intend to inquire to whom the authority belonged, but, if the priest were not sent within three hours, he would burn the town. The townspeople being in no condition to resist, the priest was at once sent. On his arrival, he defended himself, alleging the insolence of the sailors. But the English (50) Admiral replied that a complaint should have been forwarded to him, and then he would have punished them severely, for none of his sailors should be allowed to affront the established[Pg 72] religion of any place where they touched. "But," he added, "I take it ill that you should set on your countrymen to do my work; for I will have all the world know that an Englishman is only to be punished, by an Englishman." Then, satisfied with having had the (50) offender at his mercy, Blake entertained him civilly and sent him back.

Cromwell was much delighted with (5) this, (43) and read the letters in council with great satisfaction; and said he (6) hoped he should make the name of an Englishman as great as ever that of a Roman (15 a) had been. (44) The States of Holland were in such dread of (5) him that they took care to give him no sort of umbrage; (43) (44) and when at any time the king or his brothers came to see their sister the Princess Royal, (23) within a day or two after, (5) they used to send a deputation to let them know that Cromwell had required of the States that (5) they should give them no harbour.

Cromwell was much delighted with Blake's conduct. Reading the letters in council with great satisfaction, he said, "I hope I shall make the name of an Englishman as much respected as ever was the name of Roman." Among other countries the States of Holland were in such dread of Cromwell that they took care to give him no sort of umbrage. Accordingly, whenever the king or his brothers came to see the Princess Royal their sister, they were always warned in a day or two by a deputation that Cromwell had required of the States to give them no harbourage.


Cromwell's favourite alliance was Sweden.[30] (44) Carolus Gustavus and he lived in great conjunction of counsels. (44) Even Algernon Sydney, (10 a) who was not inclined to think or speak well of kings, commended him (5) to me; and said he (5) had just notions of public liberty; (44) (43) and added, that Queen Christina seemed to have them likewise. But (44) she was much changed from that, when I waited on her at Rome; for she complained of us as a factious nation, that did not readily comply with the commands (47 a) of our princes. (44) All Italy trembled at the name of Cromwell, and seemed under a (1) panic as long as he lived; (43) his fleet scoured the Mediterranean; and the Turks durst not offend him; but delivered up Hyde, who kept up the character of an ambassador from the king there (23) (43), and was brought over and executed for (5) it.


The free kingdom of Sweden was Cromwell's favourite ally; not only under Charles Gustavus, with whom he was on most confidential terms, but also under Christina. Both these sovereigns had just notions of public liberty; at least,[Pg 73] Algernon Sydney, a man certainly not prejudiced in favour of royalty, assured me this was true of Gustavus. He also held the same opinion of Queen Christina; but, if so, she was much changed when I waited on her at Rome; for she then complained of the factious and unruly spirit of our nation.

All Italy, no less than Holland,[31] trembled at the name of Cromwell, and dreaded him till he died. Nor durst the Turks offend the great (50) Protector whose fleet scoured the Mediterranean; and they even gave up Hyde, who, for keeping up in Turkey the character of ambassador from the king, was brought to England and executed.

(44) (11 a) The putting the brother of the king of Portugal's ambassador to death for murder, was (11 a) carrying justice very far; (43) since, though in the strictness of the law of nations, it is only the ambassador's own person that is exempted from (4) any authority (47 a) but his master's that sends him, yet the practice has gone in favour of all that the ambassador owned (47 a) to belong to him. (41) (44) Cromwell showed his good (11) understanding in nothing more than in seeking[32] out capable and worthy men for all employments, but most particularly for the courts of law, (43) (30 a) (10 a) which gave a general satisfaction.

In another instance of severity towards foreigners—the execution of the brother of the Portuguese ambassador for murder—Cromwell carried justice very far. For, though in strictness the law of nations exempts from foreign jurisdiction the ambassador alone, yet in practice the exemption has extended to the whole of the ambassador's suite.

Successful abroad, Cromwell was no less successful at home in selecting able and worthy men for public duties, especially for the courts of law. In nothing did he show more clearly his great natural insight,[Pg 74] and nothing contributed more to his popularity.

FOOTNOTES:

[28] The meaning is "his, and therefore the nation's, ministers." There is a kind of antithesis between "the nation" and "the nation's ministers."

[29] No instance has yet been mentioned.

[30] The thought that is implied, and should be expressed, by the words, is this: "Cromwell's favourite ally was a free country."

[31] The remarks about Christina are a digression, and Burnet is now returning to the respect in which Cromwell was held by foreign nations.

[32] He not only sought, but sought successfully. That "find" is not necessarily implied by "seek out" seems proved by the use of the word in the Authorized Version, 2 Tim. ii. 17: "He sought me out very diligently, and found me."

Bishop Butler.

The principal faults in this style are (a) a vague use of pronouns (5), and sometimes (b) the use of a phrase, where a word would be enough (47 a).

ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.

Some persons, (15) upon pretence[33] of the sufficiency of the light of Nature, avowedly reject all revelation as, in its (47 a) very notion, incredible, and what (47 a) must be fictitious. And indeed (32) it is certain that no revelation would have been given, (32) had the light of Nature been sufficient in such a sense as to render (5) one not[35] wanting, or useless. But no (15 b) man in seriousness and simplicity can possibly think it (5) so, who considers the state of religion in the heathen world before revelation, and its (5) present state in those (11) places (8) which have borrowed no light from (5) it; particularly (19) the doubtfulness of some of the (12) greatest men concerning things of the utmost (11) importance, as well as the (15 a) natural inattention and ignorance of mankind in general. It is (34) impossible to say (12) who would have been able to have reasoned out that whole system which we call natural religion, (30) in its genuine simplicity, clear of superstition; but there is certainly no ground to affirm that the generality could. (44) If they could, there is no sort of probability that they would. (44) Admitting there were, they would highly want a standing admonition to remind them of (5) it, and inculcate it upon them. And further still, were (5) they as much disposed (47 a) to attend to religion as the better sort of men (15 a) are; yet, even upon this supposition, there would be various occasions for supernatural instruction and assistance, and the greatest advantages (50) might be afforded (15 a) by (5) them. So that, to say revelation is a thing superfluous, what there (47 a) was no need of, and what can be of (47 a) no service, is, I think, to talk wildly and at random. Nor would it be more extravagant to affirm that (40 a) mankind is so entirely (40 a) at ease in the present state, and (40 a) life so completely (40 a) happy, that (5) it is a contradiction to suppose (40 a) our condition capable of being in any respect (47 a) better.—(Analogy of Religion, part ii. chap. 1.)

Some persons avowedly reject all revelation as [34]essentially incredible and necessarily fictitious, on the ground that the light of Nature is in itself sufficient. And assuredly, had the light of Nature been sufficient in such a sense as to render revelation needless or useless, no revelation would ever have been given. But let any man consider the spiritual darkness that once (41) prevailed in the heathen world before revelation, and that (41) still prevails in those regions that have not yet received the light of revealed truth; above all, let him mark not merely the natural inattention and ignorance of the masses, but also the doubtful language held even by a Socrates on even so vital a subject as[36] the immortality of the soul; and then can he in seriousness and sincerity maintain that the light of Nature is sufficient?

It is of course impossible to deny that some second[36] Aristotle might have reasoned out, in its genuine simplicity and without a touch of superstition,[Pg 75] the whole of that system which we call natural religion. But there is certainly no ground for affirming that this complicated process would have been possible for ordinary men. Even if they had had the power, there is no probability that they would have had the inclination; and, even if we admit the probable inclination, they would still need some standing admonition, whereby natural religion might be suggested and inculcated. Still further, even if we suppose these ordinary men to be as attentive to religion as men of a better sort, yet even then there would be various occasions when supernatural instruction and assistance might be most beneficially bestowed. Therefore, to call revelation superfluous, needless, and useless, is, in my opinion, to talk wildly and at random. A man might as reasonably assert that we are so entirely at ease and so completely happy in this present life that our condition cannot without contradiction be supposed capable of being in any way improved.

FOOTNOTES:

[33] "To pretend" once meant "to put forward," "maintain."

[34] It has been suggested, however, that by "in its very notion incredible," is meant "inconceivable."

[35] "Wanting" is used for modern "wanted."

[36] This use of the particular for the general would be out of place in Butler's style, but it adds clearness.

BREVITY.

Sir Archibald Alison.

The following extract exhibits examples of tautology and lengthiness. The "implied statement" (50) can often be used as a remedy, but, more often, the best remedy is omission.

ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.

The Russian empire is (50) a state of (54) such vast strength and boundless resources, that it is obviously destined to make a great and lasting impression on human affairs. Its (50) progress has been slow, but (5) it[37] is Russian Empire has not, like the only on that account the more likely to be durable. (5) It has not suddenly risen to greatness, like the empire of Alexander in ancient (19) (31), or that of Napoleon in modern, times, from the force of individual genius, or the accidents of (54) casual fortune, but has slowly advanced, and (40 a) been firmly consolidated (15) during a succession of ages, from the combined influence of ambition skilfully directed and energy (15 a) perseveringly applied.

Russia, with her vast strength and boundless resources, is obviously destined to exercise on the course[Pg 76] of history a great and lasting influence. The slowness of her progress only renders her durability more probable. The Russian Empire has not, like the empires of Alexander the Great and Napoleon, been raised to sudden greatness by the genius of individuals or the accidents of fortune, but has been slowly enlarged and firmly consolidated by well-guided ambition and persevering energy,[38] during a long succession of ages.


The extent and fertility of the Russian territory are such (54) as to furnish facilities of increase and elements of strength which no nation (47 a) in the world enjoys. European Russia—that is, Russia to the westward of the Ural Mountains—contains a hundred and fifty thousand four hundred square marine leagues, or about one million two hundred thousand square geographical miles, being ten times the surface of the British Islands, which contain, including Ireland, one hundred and twenty-two thousand. Great part, no doubt, of this immense (54, see below) territory is covered with forests, or (40 a) lies so far to the north as to be almost unproductive of food; but no ranges of mountains or arid deserts intersect the vast (54, see above) extent, and almost the whole, excepting that which touches the Arctic snows, is capable of yielding something for the use of man. The (3) (54) boundless steppes of the south present (54) inexhaustible fields of pasturage, and give birth to those nomad tribes, in whose numerous and incomparable horsemen the chief defence of the empire,[39] as of all Oriental states, (15 a) is to be found. The rich arable lands in the heart of the (54) empire produce an (2) incalculable quantity of grain, capable not only of maintaining four times (5) its present inhabitants, but affording a vast surplus for exportation by the Dnieper, the Volga, and their tributary streams, (30) which form so many (54) natural outlets into the Euxine or other seas; (44) while the cold and shivering plains which stretch towards Archangel and the shores of the White Sea are (48) covered with immense forests of fir and oak, furnishing at once (54)[40] inexhaustible materials for shipbuilding and supplies of fuel. (54) These ample stores for many generations will supersede the necessity of searching in the (14 a) bowels of the earth for the purposes of (54) warmth or manufacture.


The extent and fertility of her territory furnish unparalleled facilities for the increase of her population and power. European Russia, that is, Russia to the west of the Ural Mountains, contains one million two hundred thousand square geographical miles, or ten times the surface of Great Britain and Ireland.



This vast territory is intersected by no mountain ranges, no arid deserts; and though much of it is rendered almost unproductive of food either by the denseness of forests, or by the severity of the northern winter,[Pg 77] yet almost all, except that part which touches the Arctic snows, is capable of yielding something for the use of man.


The steppes of the south present an inexhaustible pasturage to those nomad tribes whose numerous and incomparable horsemen form the chief defence of the empire.

The rich arable lands in the interior produce grain enough to support four times the present population of the empire, and yet leave a vast surplus to be transported by the Dnieper, the Volga, and their tributaries, into the Euxine or other seas.

Lastly, the cold bleak plains stretching towards Archangel and towards the shores of the White Sea, and covered with immense forests of oak and fir, furnish materials for shipbuilding and supplies of fuel that will for many generations supersede the necessity of searching for coal.

Formidable as the power of Russia is from the vast extent of its territory, and the great and rapidly increasing number of its (54) subjects, (5) it is still more (5) so from the military spirit and docile disposition by which they are (54)[41] distinguished. The prevailing (54) passion of the nation is the (54) love of conquest, and this (54) ardent (54) desire, which (54) burns as (54) fiercely in them as democratic ambition does in the free states of Western Europe, is the unseen spring[42] which both retains them submissive (54) under the standard of their chief and impels their accumulated forces in ceaseless violence over all the adjoining states. The energies of the people, great as[43] the territory they inhabit, are rarely wasted in internal disputes. Domestic grievances, how great soever, are (54) overlooked in the thirst for foreign aggrandizement. (15) In the conquest of the world the people hope to find a compensation, and more than a compensation, (15 a) for all the evils of their interior administration.

Much as we may dread Russia for the vastness of her territory and of her rapidly[Pg 78] increasing numbers, there is greater cause for fear in the military spirit and the docility of her people.

A burning thirst for conquest is as prevalent a passion in Russia as democratic ambition in the free states of Western Europe. This passion is the unseen spring[42] which, while it retains the Russians in the strictest discipline, unceasingly impels their united forces against all adjoining states.

The national energy, which is as great as the national territory, rarely wastes itself in disputes about domestic grievances. For all internal evils, how great soever, the Russians hope to find a compensation, and more than a compensation, in the conquest of the world.

FOOTNOTES:

[37] Apparently "it" means, not "progress," but the "Russian empire."

[38] Not "energy," but "a long succession of ages," needs to be emphasized.

[39] There is nothing in the context that requires the words, "as of all Oriental states."

[40] If they were really "inexhaustible," the "necessity of searching in the bowels of the earth" would be "superseded," not for "many," but for all generations.

[41] The words can be implied, and besides they are expressed in the following sentence.

[42] The metaphor is questionable; for a "spring," qua "spring," does not retain at all; and besides, "a passion" ought not to "burn" in one line, and be a "spring" in the next.

[43] The meaning appears not to be, "great as" (is), i.e. "though the territory is great."




THE END.


ENGLISH LESSONS

FOR

ENGLISH PEOPLE.


BY

THE REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,

HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL;

AND

J. R. SEELEY, M.A.,

PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.

"It is not so much a merit to know English as it is a shame not to know it; and I look upon this knowledge as essential for an Englishman, and not merely for a fine speaker."—Adapted from Cicero.


BOSTON:
ROBERTS BROTHERS.
1883.

QUI LEGIT REGIT

University Press: John Wilson & Son,
Cambridge.


TO THE

REV. G. F. W. MORTIMER, D.D.,

Prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral, late Head Master of the City of London School.

Dear Doctor Mortimer,

We have other motives, beside the respect and gratitude which must be felt for you by all those of your old pupils who are capable of appreciating the work you did at the City of London School, for asking you to let us dedicate to you a little book which we have entitled "English Lessons for English People."

Looking back upon our school life, we both feel that among the many educational advantages which we enjoyed under your care, there was none more important than the study of the works of Shakspeare, to which we and our school-fellows were stimulated by the special prizes of the Beaufoy Endowment.

We owe you a debt of gratitude not always owed by pupils to their teachers. Many who have passed into a life of engrossing activity without having been taught at school to use rightly, or to appreciate the right use of, their native [Pg iv]tongue, feeling themselves foreigners amid the language of their country, may turn with some point against their teachers the reproach of banished Bolingbroke:—

My tongue's use is to me no more
Than an unstringed viol or a harp,
Or like a cunning instrument cased up,
Or, being open, put into his hands
That knows no touch to tune the harmony;
Within my mouth you have engaoled my tongue,
Doubly portcullis'd with my teeth and lips,
And dull, unfeeling, barren ignorance
Is made my gaoler to attend on me.
I am too old to fawn upon a nurse,
Too far in years to be a pupil now.

It is our pleasant duty, on the contrary, to thank you for encouraging us to study the "cunning instrument" of our native tongue.

Our sense of the benefits which we derived from this study, and our recollection that the study was at that time optional, and did not affect more than a small number of the pupils, lead us to anticipate that when once the English language and literature become recognized, not as an optional but as a regular part of our educational course, the advantages will be so great as to constitute nothing short of a national benefit.

The present seems to be a critical moment for English instruction. The subject has excited much attention of late years; many schools have already taken it up; others are [Pg v]on the point of doing so; it forms an important part of most Government and other examinations. But there is a complaint from many teachers that they cannot teach English for want of text-books and manuals; and, as the study of English becomes year by year more general, this complaint makes itself more and more distinctly heard. To meet this want we have written the following pages. If we had had more time, we might perhaps have been tempted to aim at producing a more learned and exhaustive book on the subject; but, setting aside want of leisure, we feel that a practical text-book, and not a learned or exhaustive treatise, is what is wanted at the present crisis.

We feel sure that you will give a kindly welcome to our little book, as an attempt, however imperfect, to hand on the torch which you have handed to us; we beg you also to accept it as a token of our sincere gratitude for more than ordinary kindnesses, and to believe us

Your affectionate pupils,

J. R. SEELEY.
EDWIN A. ABBOTT.


[Pg vi]

Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications.

ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. By Rev. E. A. Abbott, M.A., and Prof. J. R. Seeley, M.A. Part I.—Vocabulary. Part II—Diction. Part III.—Metre. Part IV.—Hints on Selection and Arrangement. Appendix. 16mo. Price $1.50.

From the London Athenæum.

The object of this book is evidently a practical one. It is intended for ordinary use by a large circle of readers; and though designed principally for boys, may be read with advantage by many of more advanced years. One of the lessons which it professes to teach, "to use the right word in the right place," is one which no one should despise. The accomplishment is a rare one, and many of the hints here given are truly admirable.

From the Southern Review.

The study of Language can never be exhausted. Every time it is looked at by a man of real ability and culture, some new phase starts into view. The origin of Language; its relations to the mind; its history; its laws; its development; its struggles; its triumphs; its devices; its puzzles; its ethics,—every thing about it is full of interest.

Here is a delightful book, by two men of recognized authority,—the head Master of London School, and the Professor of Modern History in the University of Cambridge, the notable author of "Ecce Homo." The book is so comprehensive in its scope that it seems almost miscellaneous. It treats of the vocabulary of the English Language; Diction as appropriate to this or that sort of composition; selection and arguments of topics; Metre, and an Appendix on Logic. All this in less than three hundred pages. Within this space so many subjects cannot be treated exhaustively; and no one is, unless we may except Metre, to which about eighty pages are devoted, and about which all seems to be said that is worth saying,—possibly more. But on each topic some of the best things are said in a very stimulating way. The student will desire to study more thoroughly the subject into which such pleasant openings are here given; and the best prepared teacher will be thankful for the number of striking illustrations gathered up to his hand.

The abundance and freshness of the quotations makes the volume very attractive reading, without reference to its didactic value.


Sold by all booksellers. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers,

ROBERTS BROTHERS, Boston.


[Pg vii]

PREFACE.

This book is not intended to supply the place of an English Grammar. It presupposes a knowledge of Grammar and of English idiom in its readers, and does not address itself to foreigners, but to those who, having already a familiar knowledge of English, need help to write it with taste and exactness. Some degree of knowledge is presumed in the reader; nevertheless we do not presume that he possesses so much as to render him incapable of profiting from lessons. Our object is, if possible, not merely to interest, but to teach; to write lessons, not essays,—lessons that may perhaps prove interesting to some who have passed beyond the routine of school life, but still lessons, in the strictest sense, adapted for school classes.

Aiming at practical utility, the book deals only with those difficulties which, in the course of teaching, we have found to be most common and most serious. For there are many difficulties, even when grammatical accuracy has been attained, in the way of English persons attempting to write and speak correctly. First, there is the cramping restriction of an insufficient vocabulary; not merely a loose and inexact [Pg viii]apprehension of many words that are commonly used, and a consequent difficulty in using them accurately, but also a total ignorance of many other words, and an inability to use them at all; and these last are, as a rule, the very words which are absolutely necessary for the comprehension and expression of any thought that deals with something more than the most ordinary concrete notions. There is also a very common inability to appreciate the differences between words that are at all similar. Lastly, where the pupil has studied Latin, and trusts too much for his knowledge of English words to his knowledge of their Latin roots, there is the possibility of misderiving and misunderstanding a word, owing to ignorance of the changes of letters introduced in the process of derivation; and, on the other hand, there is the danger of misunderstanding and pedantically misusing words correctly derived, from an ignorance of the changes of meaning which a word almost always experiences in passing from one language to another. The result of all this non-understanding or slovenly half-understanding of words is a habit of slovenly reading and slovenly writing, which when once acquired is very hard to shake off.

Then, following on the difficulties attending the use of words, there are others attending the choice and arrangement of words. There is the danger of falling into "poetic prose," of thinking it necessary to write "steed" or "charger" instead of "horse," "ire" instead of "anger," and the like; and every teacher, who has had much experience in looking [Pg ix]over examination papers, will admit that this is a danger to which beginners are very liable. Again, there is the temptation to shrink with a senseless fear from using a plain word twice in the same page, and often from using a plain word at all. This unmanly dread of simplicity, and of what is called "tautology," gives rise to a patchwork made up of scraps of poetic quotations, unmeaning periphrases, and would-be humorous circumlocutions,—a style of all styles perhaps the most objectionable and offensive, which may be known and avoided by the name of Fine Writing. Lastly, there is the danger of obscurity, a fault which cannot be avoided without extreme care, owing to the uninflected nature of our language.

All these difficulties and dangers are quite as real, and require as much attention, and are fit subjects for practical teaching in our schools, quite as much as many points which, at present, receive perhaps an excessive attention in some of our text-books. To use the right word in the right place is an accomplishment not less valuable than the knowledge of the truth (carefully recorded in most English Grammars, and often inflicted as a task upon younger pupils) that the plural of cherub is cherubim, and the feminine of bull is cow.

To smooth the reader's way through these difficulties is the object of the first three Parts of this book. Difficulties connected with Vocabulary are considered first. The student is introduced, almost at once, to Synonyms. He is [Pg x]taught how to define a word, with and without the aid of its synonyms. He is shown how to eliminate from a word whatever is not essential to its meaning. The processes of Definition and Elimination are carefully explained: a system or scheme is laid down which he can exactly follow; and examples are subjoined, worked out to illustrate the method which he is to pursue. A system is also given by which the reader may enlarge his vocabulary, and furnish himself easily and naturally with those general or abstract terms which are often misunderstood and misused, and still more often not understood and not used at all. Some information is also given to help the reader to connect words with their roots, and at the same time to caution him against supposing that, because he knows the roots of a word, he necessarily knows the meaning of the word itself. Exercises are interspersed throughout this Part which can be worked out with, or without, an English Etymological Dictionary,[44] as the nature of the case may require. The exercises have not been selected at random; many of them have been subjected to the practical test of experience, and have been used in class teaching.

The Second Part deals with Diction. It attempts to illustrate with some detail the distinction—often ignored by those who are beginning to write English, and sometimes by others also—between the Diction of Prose, and that of Poetry. It [Pg xi]endeavors to dissipate that excessive and vulgar dread of tautology which, together with a fondness for misplaced pleasantry, gives rise to the vicious style described above. It gives some practical rules for writing a long sentence clearly and impressively; and it also examines the difference between slang, conversation, and written prose. Both for translating from foreign languages into English, and for writing original English composition, these rules have been used in teaching, and, we venture to think, with encouraging results.

A Chapter on Simile and Metaphor concludes the subject of Diction. We have found, in the course of teaching, that a great deal of confusion in speaking and writing, and still more in reading and attempting to understand the works of our classical English authors, arises from the inability to express the literal meaning conveyed in a Metaphor. The application of the principle of Proportion to the explanation of Metaphor has been found to dissipate much of this confusion. The youngest pupils readily learn how to "expand a Metaphor into its Simile;" and it is really astonishing to see how many difficulties that perplex young heads, and sometimes old ones too, vanish at once when the key of "expansion" is applied. More important still, perhaps, is the exactness of thought introduced by this method. The pupil knows that, if he cannot expand a metaphor, he does not understand it. All teachers will admit that to force a pupil to see that he does not understand any thing is a great [Pg xii]stride of progress. It is difficult to exaggerate the value of a process which makes it impossible for a pupil to delude himself into the belief that he understands when he does not understand.

Metre is the subject of the Third Part. The object of this Part (as also, in a great measure, of the Chapter just mentioned belonging to the Second Part) is to enable the pupil to read English Poetry with intelligence, interest, and appreciation. To teach any one how to read a verse so as to mark the metre on the one hand, without on the other hand converting the metrical line into a monotonous doggerel, is not so easy a task as might be supposed. Many of the rules stated in this Part have been found of practical utility in teaching pupils to hit the mean. Rules and illustrations have therefore been given, and the different kinds of metre and varieties of the same metre have been explained at considerable length.

This Chapter may seem to some to enter rather too much into detail. We desire, however, to urge as an explanation, that in all probability the study of English metre will rapidly assume more importance in English schools. At present, very little is generally taught, and perhaps known, about this subject. In a recent elaborate edition of the works of Pope, the skill of that consummate master of the art of epigrammatic versification is impugned because in one of his lines he suffers the to receive the metrical accent. When one of the commonest customs (for it is in no sense a license) of English poets—a custom sanctioned by Shakspeare,[Pg xiii] Dryden, Milton, Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley, and Tennyson—can be censured as a fault, and this in a leading edition of a leading poet of our literature, it must be evident that much still remains to be done in teaching English Metre. At present this Part may seem too detailed. Probably, some few years hence, when a knowledge of English Metre has become more widely diffused, it will seem not detailed enough.

The Fourth Part (like the Chapter on Metaphor) is concerned not more with English than with other languages. It treats of the different Styles of Composition, the appropriate subjects for each, and the arrangement of the subject-matter. We hope that this may be of some interest to the general reader, as well as of practical utility in the higher classes of schools. It seems desirable that before pupils begin to write essays, imaginary dialogues, speeches, and poems, they should receive some instruction as to the difference of arrangement in a poem, a speech, a conversation, and an essay.

An Appendix adds a few hints on some Errors in Reasoning. This addition may interfere with the symmetry of the book; but if it is found of use, the utility will be ample compensation. In reading literature, pupils are continually meeting instances of false reasoning, which, if passed over without comment, do harm, and, if commented upon, require some little basis of knowledge in the pupil to enable him to understand the explanation. Without entering into the details of formal Logic, we have found it possible to give pupils some few hints which have appeared to help them.[Pg xiv] The hints are so elementary, and so few, that they cannot possibly delude the youngest reader into imagining that they are any thing more than hints. They may induce him hereafter to study the subject thoroughly in a complete treatise, when he has leisure and opportunity; but, in any case, a boy will leave school all the better prepared for the work of life, whatever that work may be, if he knows the meaning of induction, and has been cautioned against the error, post hoc, ergo propter hoc. No lesson, so far as our experience in teaching goes, interests and stimulates pupils more than this; and our experience of debating societies, in the higher forms of schools, forces upon us the conviction that such lessons are not more interesting than necessary.

Questions on the different paragraphs have been added at the end of the book, for the purpose of enabling the student to test his knowledge of the contents, and also to serve as home lessons to be prepared by pupils in classes.[45]

A desire, expressed by some teachers of experience, that these lessons should be published as soon as possible, has rather accelerated the publication. Some misprints and other inaccuracies may possibly be found in the following pages, in consequence of the short time Which has been allowed us for correcting them. Our thanks are due to several friends who have kindly assisted us in this task, and who have also [Pg xv]aided us with many valuable and practical suggestions. Among these we desire to mention Mr. Joseph Payne, whose labors on Norman French are well known; Mr. T.G. Philpotts, late Fellow of New College, Oxford, and one of the Assistant Masters of Rugby School; Mr. Edwin Abbott, Head Master of the Philological School; Mr. Howard Candler, Mathematical Master of Uppingham School; and the Rev. R. H. Quick, one of the Assistant Masters of Harrow School.

In conclusion, we repeat that we do not wish our book to be regarded as an exhaustive treatise, or as adapted for the use of foreigners. It is intended primarily for boys, but, in the present unsatisfactory state of English education, we entertain a hope that it may possibly be found not unfit for some who have passed the age of boyhood; and in this hope we have ventured to give it the title of English Lessons for English People.

FOOTNOTES:

[44] An Etymological Dictionary is necessary for pupils studying the First Part. Chambers's or Ogilvie's will answer the purpose.

[45] Some of the passages quoted to illustrate style are intended to be committed to memory and used as repetition-lessons.—See pp. 180, 181, 212, 237, 238, etc.


ON THE RIGHT USE OF BOOKS.

A Lecture. By William P. Atkinson, Professor of English and History in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 16mo. Cloth. Price 50 cents.

"Full of good sense, sound taste, and quiet humor.... It is the easiest thing in the world to waste time over books, which are merely tools of knowledge like any other tools.... It is the function of a good book not only to fructify, but to inspire, not only to fill the memory with evanescent treasures, but to enrich the imagination with forms of beauty and goodness which leave a lasting impression on the character."—N. Y. Tribune.

"Contains so many wise suggestions concerning methods in study and so excellent a summary of the nature and principles of a really liberal education that it well deserves publication for the benefit of the reading public. Though it makes only a slight volume, its quality in thought and style is so admirable that all who are interested in the subject of good education will give to it a prominent and honorable position among the many books upon education which have recently been published. For it takes only a brief reading to perceive that in this single lecture the results of wide experience in teaching and of long study of the true principles of education are generalized and presented in a few pages, each one of which contains so much that it might be easily expanded into an excellent chapter."—The Library Table.


READING AS A FINE ART.

By Ernest Legouvé, of the Académie Française. Translated from the Ninth Edition by Abby Langdon Alger. 16mo. Cloth. 50 cents.

(Dedication.)

to the scholars of the high and normal school.

For you this sketch was written: permit me to dedicate it to you, in fact, to intrust it to your care. Pupils to-day, to-morrow you will be teachers; to-morrow, generation after generation of youth will pass through your guardian hands. An idea received by you must of necessity reach thousands of minds. Help me, then, to spread abroad the work in which you have some share, and allow me to add to the great pleasure of having numbered you among my hearers the still greater happiness of calling you my assistants. E. Legouvé.

We commend this valuable little book to the attention of teachers and others interested in the instruction of the pupils of our public schools. It treats of the "First Steps in Reading," "Learning to Read," "Should we read as we talk," "The Use and Management of the Voice," "The Art of Breathing," "Pronunciation," "Stuttering," "Punctuation," "Readers and Speakers," "Reading as a Means of Criticism," "On Reading Poetry," &c., and makes a strong claim as to the value of reading aloud, as being the most wholesome of gymnastics, for to strengthen the voice is to strengthen the whole system and develop vocal power.


HOW TO PARSE.

An Attempt to apply the Principles of Scholarship to English Grammar. With Appendixes in Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation. By Edwin A. Abbott, M.A., Head Master of the City of London School. 16mo. Cloth. Price $1.00.

"We recommend this little book to the careful attention of teachers and others interested in instruction. In the hands of an able teacher, the book should help to relieve parsing from the reproach of being the bane of the school-room. The Etymological Glossary of Grammatical Terms will also supply a long-felt want." N.Y. Nation.

"'How to Parse' is likely to prove to teachers a valuable, and to scholars an agreeable, substitute for most of the grammars in common use."—Boston Daily Advertiser.

"The Rev. E.A. Abbott, whose books, 'English Lessons for English People,' and 'How to Write Clearly,' have been accepted as standard text-books on both sides of the ocean, has added another work to his list of sensible treatises on the use of English. It is called 'How to Parse,' and is best described by the further title, 'An Attempt to apply the Principles of Scholarship to English Grammar, with Appendices on Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation.' The little book is so sensible and so simple that the greater number of its readers will perhaps forget to observe that it is profoundly philosophical also, but it is so in the best sense of the term."—N. Y. Evening Post.

"Of all subjects of study, it may be safely admitted that grammar possesses as a rule the fewest attractions for the youthful mind. To prepare a work capable of imparting a thorough knowledge of this important part of education in an attractive and entertaining form, to many may appear extremely difficult, if not impossible; nevertheless, the task has been accomplished in a highly successful manner by Edwin A. Abbott, Head Master of the City of London School, in a neat little volume entitled 'How to Parse.' The author has succeeded admirably in combining with the exercises a vast amount of useful information, which impacts to the principles and rules of the main subject a degree of interest that renders the study as attractive as history or fiction. The value of the book is greatly increased by an excellent glossary of grammatical forms and a nicely arranged index. The work deserves the attention and consideration of teachers and pupils, and will doubtless prove a highly popular addition to the list of school-books."—N.Y. Graphic.


Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications.


GOETHE'S

Hermann and Dorothea.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN

By ELLEN FROTHINGHAM.

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.

Thin 8vo, cloth, gilt, bevelled boards. Price $2.00. A cheaper edition, 16mo, cloth. Price $1.00.

"Miss Frothingham's translation is something to be glad of: it lends itself kindly to perusal, and it presents Goethe's charming poem in the metre of the original.... It is not a poem which could be profitably used in an argument for the enlargement of the sphere of woman: it teaches her subjection, indeed, from the lips of a beautiful girl, which are always so fatally convincing; but it has its charm, nevertheless, and will serve at least for an agreeable picture of an age when the ideal woman was a creature around which grew the beauty and comfort and security of home."—Atlantic Monthly.

"The poem itself is bewitching. Of the same metre as Longfellow's 'Evangeline,' its sweet and measured cadences carry the reader onward with a real pleasure as he becomes more and more absorbed in this descriptive wooing song. It is a sweet volume to read aloud in a select circle of intelligent friends."—Providence Press.

"Miss Frothingham has done a good service, and done it well, in translating this famous idyl, which has been justly called 'one of the most faultless poems of modern times.' Nothing can surpass the simplicity, tenderness, and grace of the original, and these have been well preserved in Miss Frothingham's version. Her success is worthy of the highest praise, and the mere English reader can scarcely fail to read the poem with the same delight with which it has always been read by those familiar with the German. Its charming pictures of domestic life, the strength and delicacy of its characterization, the purity of tone and ardent love of country which breathe through it, must always make it one of the most admired of Goethe's works."—Boston Christian Register.


Sold everywhere. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers,

ROBERTS BROTHERS, Boston


DR. ABBOTT'S WORKS.


HOW TO PARSE. An Attempt to Apply the Principles of Scholarship to English Grammar. With Appendixes on Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation. 16mo. Cloth. Price, $1.00.

HOW TO TELL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. An Introduction to English Grammar. American edition, revised and enlarged by Prof. John G. R. McElroy, of the University of Pennsylvania. 16mo. Cloth. Price, 75 cents.

HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY. Rules and Exercises in English Composition. 16mo. Cloth. Price, 60 cents.

ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. Jointly by Dr. Abbott and Prof. J. R. Seeley, M.A., of Cambridge University, Eng. 16mo. Cloth. Price, $1.50.


ROBERTS BROTHERS, Publishers,
Boston.


Transcriber's Notes

Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including obsolete and variant spellings, various font sizes and other inconsistencies.

The transcriber made the following changes to the text to correct obvious errors:

1. p. 90, "inpugned" —> "impugned"2. p. 51, to qualify "enemy. —> to qualify "enemy."

It is common to have footnotes referenced multiple times in the text.

Advertisements for Dr. Abbott's other works published by Roberts Brothers have been moved from the front of the book to the end.


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영어 공부 제대로 하기 2008/04/27 19:26 Posted by 고수민

예전에 제가 세인트루이스의 병원에서 근무할 때 함께 일하다가 이제는 미국 동부의 아이비리그의 명문대학 병원으로 자리를 옮기신 선배 한국인 의사분이 계십니다. 대부분의 한국인 이민 1세대들이 다 그러하듯(저를 포함해서) 영어가 미국 사람들에 비해서 딸리는 가운데서도 정말 실력으로 인정받아서 레지던트 시절에 동료 레지던트들이 투표에 의해 선정하는 최고의 레지던트에 뽑히는 영예를 누리기도 했던 분이셨습니다. 비자문제나 언어의 문제를 다 극복하고 오로지 실력 하나만으로 아이비리그의 명문대학교 병원으로 옮기실 때도 많은 미국 사람들이 그 양반은 그럴 줄 알았다는 식으로 충분히 수긍을 하고 존경을 보내주었습니다.
 
우리가 어렸을 때 읽었던 동화책의 내용에 보면 온갖 고난을 겪은 주인공이 마지막에 원하는 목표를 성취하고 남은 생을 편하고 행복하게 잘 살았다는 내용이 종종 나오곤 하는데 이런 해피엔딩은 그저 동화책의 이야기일 뿐이고 우리의 실제 생활은 한 번의 대단한 성취가 그 인생의 끝이 아니고 또 다른 난관을 만나고 다시 극복하는 일이 끝없이 지속되는 것 같습니다. 나중에 위에서 말씀드린 선배 의사분의 근황을 들었는데 의외로 영어로 고전을 하고 계시다는 이야기였습니다.
 
 
 
 
 
영어를 어느 정도 할 줄 알아도 스트레스는 끝이 없다
 
물론 저와 함께 근무하실 때도 일하는데 아무런 부족함이 없을 정도의 충분한 영어구사 능력을 가지신 분이었고 일하는 장소가 바뀐다고 영어 실력이 줄어들 이유도 없을 것이지만 문제는 함께 일하는 동료들의 영어가 너무 훌륭한 나머지 자신의 제한된 영어 실력이 비교가 되어 심적으로 스트레스를 받는다는 것이었습니다.
 
영어공부를 하다보면 그저 영화나 드라마의 주인공처럼 일상생활을 하는데 지장이 없는 정도의 수준만 되면 소원이 없겠다는 생각을 많이 했습니다. 미국 영화나 드라마의 주인공들이 사용하는 언어는 대부분 복합문보다는 단문이고, 표현이 은유적이기 보다는 직설적이며, 문장 자체의 길이도 길지 않아서 언어에서조차 최고의 경제성을 추구하는 미국인들의 성격을 잘 나타내줍니다. 그런데 영화도 장르에 따라서 어떤 경우는 주인공들의 영어 표현이 수사적으로 아주 유려하고 한 번 생각을 해야 뜻이 파악이 될 만큼 은유성이 많은 표현을 쓰는 경우를 보았는데 저의 경우는 이런 대사를 공부과정에서 생략하면서 지나갔습니다.
 
비유를 하자면 내 수준이 유치원생 수준인데 대학원생 수준의 영어를 당장 공부할 필요가 있겠는가 하고 생각했던 것입니다. 지금 생각해도 그런 생각은 상당히 현실적이고 합리적인 선택이었다고 봅니다. 그런데 제 영어실력이 점차 늘어서 초등학생과 중학생의 수준을 지나서 점차 늘어갈수록 점차 이런 고급 수준의 영어에 대한 갈망이 커 갔습니다. 오해하지 말아야 할 것은 한국 사람들이 그러하듯이 미국인들도 교육 수준이 높을수록 고급 영어를 구사하긴 하지만 미국 드라마에서 흔히 볼 수 있는 보통 사람들이 사용하는 보통의 수준의 영어 정도만 익숙해도 미국 사회의 지식인층인 의사, 변호사, 교수들과 이야기하는데 아무런 불편이 없거니와 그다지 열등감을 느끼지도 않게 됩니다. 한국의 경우를 생각해봐도 삶의 현장에서 쓰이는 한국말과 대학 강의실에서 쓰이는 한국말이 크게 다르지 않은 것처럼 말이죠.(물론 학문적인 용어는 대학에서 더 쓰이겠지만 문장의 구조나 표현이 큰 차이가 없을 것이라는 말입니다.)
 
 
 
 
 
유려한 고급 영어를 구사하는 미국인들을 만나는 스트레스
 
그런데 문제는 미국에서 가끔 말을 잘 하는 사람들(대개 각 기관의 장들이나 정치인 등)의 연설이나 발표, 강의 등에서 쓰이는 말을 들어보면 표현이 아주 품위가 있고 제가 한국어로도 그만한 수준을 구사하지 못하겠다는 느낌이 드는 상황이 있었습니다. 정말 부럽고 열등감(?)이 느껴지는 순간인데 이런 훌륭한 영어를 구사하는 사람들이 주위에 많기라도 하다면 정말 저처럼 평범한 이민 1세의 영어 실력 부족이 더욱 드러나 보이기 마련입니다. 이런 사람들과 매일 부대끼면서 살아가야 하는 운 없는(?) 한국인의 예가 바로 위에서 소개드린 제 선배의 경우가 아닐까 합니다.
 
한국에서의 경험으로는 우리말을 사용하면서 일상생활뿐이 아니고 유명 학자나 정치인의 강연 등에서도 그다지 어렵게 혹은 아름답게 꾸며서 말하는 것을 들어본 일이 별로 없습니다. 이런 식으로 현학적인 표현을 사용해서 말을 하는 것에 대한 일반의 거부감 때문인지(저자신 조차도 이런 경우 별로 기분이 좋지 않으니까요), 아니면 한국어 문화상 영어에 비해서 문어체와 구어체가 확연히 다르게 분리가 더 되어있는 것인지, 그것도 아니라면 아름답게 말하는 것에 대한 학교 교육 과정중의 교육과 훈련이 없어서인지 모르겠습니다. 우리말이라 너무 자연스럽게 이해하는 바람에 차이를 느끼지 못하는 것일 수 도 있겠습니다. 하지만 미국에 와서 보니 일반인들이 쓰는 말과는 조금 다른 고급스런(혹은 복잡한) 영어를 발표나 연설에서 종종 듣게 됩니다.
 
조금 부끄럽습니다만 이렇게 고급스런 영어를 구사하고 싶은 욕심은 있으되 지금의 상태에 큰 불편을 느끼지 못하는 저는 나중에 시간이 나면 좀 더 영어 공부를 해봐야지 하고 안주하고 있는 상태입니다. 하지만 제가 고급스런 영어 표현을 익히려고 한다면 제가 해야 할 방법이 무엇인지는 정확히 알고 있습니다. 다시 말해서 저에게는 영어 표현력을 기르는데 가장 좋은 방법이 무엇인지 경험으로 얻은 해답이 있다는 말입니다.
 
영어 표현력을 기르는 가장 좋은 방법
 
전에 영어 공부를 열심히 할 때는 서점에 가면 항상 영어공부 관련 서적 코너로 나서 무슨 무슨 책이 나와 있나 살펴보는 것이 큰 즐거움이었습니다. 어쩌다가 새로운 공부법에 대한 책이 나오면 무슨 비결이 있나하고 찾아보는 것이 생활의 일부가 될 정도였습니다. 그런데 이 많은 영어공부 학습법에 관한 책들 중에 항상 제 눈길을 끌었지만 책을 떠들어 보지 않았던 책들이 있었으니 그것은 바로 영어로 일기쓰기에 관한 책들이었습니다. 제가 지금까지 읽었던 많은 책들에서 영어공부의 방법의 하나로 영어로 일기쓰기를 추천한 책이 매우 많았고 저도 영어로 일기를 쓴다는 것은 영작문 실력을 늘리는 하나의 비결로써 뭔가 긍정적인 효과가 있을 것이라고 막연히 생각은 했지만 책 한권 전체가 영어로 일기쓰기에 관해서책은 도대체 무슨 이야기를 하고 있는 것일까 궁금해 했었습니다.
 
 
 

그러면서도 이런 책을 사서 읽거나 책장을 열어보기조차도 시도를 안했던 이유는 어차피 영어로 일기를 쓰지 않을 것인데 읽을 필요가 있나 하는 생각이었습니다.제가 영어 공부를 여러 가지로 다 시도해 보았지만 영어 일기 쓰기를 심정적으로 거부했던 몇 가지 이유들이 있었습니다. 일단은 매일 뭔가를 쓸 시간이 없다는 것이 큰 핑계이고 어떻게 내 영어 실력으로 머릿속에 생각하는 모든 내용을 영어로 옮길 수 있는가 하는 자신감의 부족에서 오는 두려움, 그리고 일기에 잘못되고 부정확한 영어 표현을 계속 적어가는 것이 영어 실력에 무슨 도움이 되겠는가하는 회의적인 생각이 바로 그런 이유들이었습니다.
 
그러다가 토플 시험을 앞두고 억지로 하기 싫은 영작문 연습을 해야 했고 비교적 비싼 돈을 주고 영작문의 교정 서비스를 받으면서 알고 보니 내 영작문 실력이 생각보다는 낫다는 것을 인식하게 되었습니다. 한 페이지를 쓰면 처음부터 끝까지 엉터리 표현으로 가득 찰 것이라는 두려움이 있었지만 원어민에 의해 교정된 제 작문을 보면 물론 무수한 교정 부호들이 가득했지만 이들은 대개 철자, 구두점, 어색한 표현 때문이었고 문법적으로 틀린 표현들이 예상만큼 많지는 않았습니다.
 
드디어 영어로 일기쓰기를 시작해 보다

토플 시험이 끝나고도 영어로 글쓰기는 계속 되었고 나중에는 영어 일기식으로 매일 뭔가 쓰는 습관을 들이게 되었습니다. 지금 생각해보면 영어 일기는 제 작문 실력만 늘려준 것이 아니고 문장을 두뇌 속에서 구성해야 하는 영어로 말하기 능력도 늘려주었으며 일기를 쓰다보면 사전과 인터넷을 뒤지며 내가 말하고 싶은 표현이 무엇인지 찾아보았기 때문에 표현력도 늘려 주어서 대단히 유익했던 공부 방법으로 생각이 됩니다. 미국에 오면서 바쁘다는 이유로 저의 영어 일기 쓰기도 중단되었지만 한국에서 삼년정도 영어 일기 쓰기를 했었던 것은 제 영어 실력 향상에 상당한 효과가 있었습니다.
 
나중에 영어 일기를 추천하는 영어 교육자들의 글을 읽어보니 영어 일기라는 것이 비록 선생님이나 원어민의 감수를 받지 못하더라도 그냥 나름대로 쓰는 자체로도 굉장한 가치가 있다고 합니다. 그리고 제가 가졌던 여러 가지 두려움이 사실은 그다지 근거가 없다는 것도 알게 되었습니다. 일단 내 영어 실력을 가지고 내가 하고 싶은 말을 일기장에 한 줄 이라도 쓸 수 있을 것인가 하는 의문이 있습니다. 저의 조언을 통해 공부를 했던 지인들의 경우를 보면 놀랍게도 아무리 영어 실력이 낮더라도(아마도 평균적인 중학생 실력 이상이라면) 영어로 일기를 쓸 수 있다는 것입니다.
 
  
 
엉터리로 일기써도 괜찮은 두가지 이유
 
물론 영어 표현이 상당히 제한적이고 글을 쓰다보면 쓴 표현을 또 쓰고 또 쓰게 되어 초등학생이 한글로 쓴 일기만도 못하게 보일 수 있습니다. 하지만 이런 식으로 계속 쓰다보면 자기의 생각을 적절히 표현할 말한 영어 표현을 찾기에 상당히 적극적이 되고 이런 표현이 하나 나오면 놓치지 않게 됩니다. 그냥 수동적으로 영어 교재에 쓰여 있는 수많은 표현을 읽는 것은 아무런 감흥이 없지만 자신이 평소에 알고 싶었던 표현이 하나 나오면 그냥 읽는 순간 외워진다고나 할까요. 그리고 이런 표현이 영어 일기에 하나 둘 씩 더해지면 몇 년이 지나면 영어 구사력이 매우 풍부해 질 것은 당연한 이치입니다.
 
두 번째 문제는 틀린 표현으로나마 계속 일기를 쓰는 것이 영어실력 향상에 정말 도움이 되느냐 하는 것입니다.  물론 원어민의 감수를 매일 받을 수만 있다면 그보다도 좋은 것이 있겠습니까. 하지만 그런 친절함을 가진 원어민을 찾는 것도 문제고 그런 능력을 가진 사람을 고용하는 것도 경제적으로 큰 문제이며 지극히 개인적일 수 있는 일기를 매일 남에게 보여주는 것도 사람들이 별로 하고 싶지 않은 일일 것이므로 현실성이 없습니다. 그런데 저의 경험과 제가 읽은 책에서 얻은 결론은 감수를 받지 않고 영어 일기를 써도 효과가 훌륭하다는 것입니다. 그 이유는 위에 문제와 겹치는 해석인데 일단 사람들이 글을 쓸 때 무의식적으로 자신이 알고 있는 검증이 되고 익숙한 표현을 주로 쓰게 됩니다.
 
따라서 틀리는 표현을 만들 여지가 적습니다. 또 자신이 틀린 표현을 계속적으로 쓰더라도 나중에 맞는 표현을 (책이든, 영화이든, 선생님으로부터 이든지) 만나게 되면 수 개월간 써 온 자신의 표현이 틀렸다는 것을 더 확실하고 생생하게 각인하게 되어 다시는 틀리지 않게 됩니다. 제가 사실 걱정했던 부분은 틀리는 표현에 너무 익숙해진 나머지 바른 표현을 알게 되어도 잘 고쳐지지가 않으면 어쩌나 하는 것이었는데 위에 쓴 대로 그 반대의 현상이 일어났습니다. 하지만 영어 일기쓰기는 전에 제 다른 글에서 말씀드렸다시피 영어책 큰 소리로 읽기와 병행되어야 합니다. 그래야 일기 속의 틀리는 표현도 찾을 수 있고 평소에 표현하고 싶었으나 어떻게 표현하는지 몰랐던 표현도 발견하는 기쁨을 누릴 수 있습니다.
 
 
 

결론적으로 영어로 일기쓰기는 영어 표현력을 길러주는 보약입니다. 영어 실력이 모자라도 상관없습니다. 그냥 쓸 수 있는 만큼 오늘부터 쓰기 시작하면 됩니다. 틀리는 표현도 걱정 말고 일단 쓰십시오. 이것도 배움의 과정입니다. 나중에 맞는 표현을 발견했을 때의 깨달음과 기쁨은 오랫동안 써온 틀리는 표현의 기억을 지우는 데 명약입니다. 또한, 영어 회화에서도 다양한 표현을 쓰지 못한 안타까움이 있습니까. 영어 일기가 답입니다.

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라이팅 공부한 방법입니다^^

요거는 결과가 어떨지도 아직 모르는데

후기를 남기려니 쑥스럽네요

그래도 보통5~5.5 정도는 받았으니

요정도 받으려구 어떻게 공부했는지 적어보겠습니다.



훔...우선

한 1년전부터 야금야금 일주일에3~4개씩 써서

셤까진 아마 200개 가까이 써봤을겁니다.

정말 시행착오를 많이 겪으면서도

요거밖에 안되니 참 부끄럽네요 ㅎㅎ

원래 쓰기 시작했을 때 5점정도 받았거든요 ㅋㅋ

작문실력은 늘었다고 생각했는데

역시 중요한건 논리를 잘 갖추어 구체적으로 쓰는건가봐요

전에는 i toefl writing이라는 넥서스에서 나온 책으로 공부를 했는데

hackers writing start랑 비교하니까 솔직히 별로 도움이 안 됐던것 같아요

롸이팅 스타트는 스타트라 자존심상해서 그간 안했는데

나중에 요거로 하니까 정말 도움이 많이 되더라구요

여기 나온 표현들을 3번쯤 다시 본 것 같습니다.

그리고 라이팅을 잘 쓰려면 동의어를 많이 알아야 해요

특히나 give, get, take요런 것 같이 자주 쓰이는 단어들은

각각 4~5개정도는 알아두어야 단조롭지 않게

바꿔가면서 써줄 수가 있어요

그리고 에세이에 정해져 있는 구조를 벗어나지만 않으면

점수가 막 4점 이하로 내려가고 그러진 않더라구요

근데 너무 집착하면 또 5점 이상 가기도 어려워요

그니까 구조에 맞추어서 자꾸 써 본 다음에

그 구조가 익으면 자유롭게 써서

기본 틀에 좀 안맞게 되더라도

논리적으로는 하자가 없는 글이 된다면

오히려 더 고득점을 할 수 있게 됩니다.

그리고 자주 쓰는 표현을 많이 익혀주세요

~는 ~를 준다(provide, offer, give....)

~는 ~할 수 있게 해준다 (enable, allow...)

~라고 생각한다 ( I think, I believe...)

ㅎㅎ 너무 당연하죠? 당연하더라도

요런거를 정말 방심말구 다양하게 여러가지로 익혀두면

참 좋습니다.

그리고 주제별 단어들도 따로 익혀주시구요

사회, 환경, 경제적 이점 등등 요런것들 말이죠

해커스 라이팅 스타트에 많이 많이 나와 있습니다

그리고 학원에서도 많이 도움 받았어요

모델 에세이 주면서 거기에 관련된 표현들 정리해주니깐

정말 좋더군요

특히 내가 모쓸까~ 하구 고민고민한 다음에 그걸 보면

갈증해소가 돼요

생각도 안 해보고 그냥 읽기만 하면 별 도움이 안됩니다.

자기가 한번 써보고 잘 써진 글을 보면

막 그야말로 흡수가 됩니다

좋은 글 보면서 거기 나온 표현들, 논리 전개, 단어구사

요런것들을 줄쳐가면서 달달 외우면 아주 도움이 되죠 ^^

그리고 자기가 쓴 글 다시 보는것도 좋더라구요

다시 읽게 되면 막 새롭더라구요

표현들 못 쓴게 있더라도 사전 찾지 않구

30분동안 꾸욱 참구 쓴다음에

그 표현들 한영사전으로 찾고

자기가 쓴글 자기가 첨삭해도 도움이 많이 됩니다.

제 글을 봐준 사람이 없어서 정말

궁리 많이 했지요 ㅎㅎ

그리고 토플 공부를 할 때 무얼 하든

TWE에 연관을 시켜 생각했습니다.

리스닝을 해도 그 표현을 라이팅에 써야지

문법을 해도 아 요런 구조의 문장 라이팅에 써먹어야지

리딩을 해도 아 요 단어랑 이런 문장 아주 조아 라이팅감이야

보카를 해도 요거는 이 토픽에 써먹기 아주 좋겠네 동의어까지 찾아서 라이팅 해야지

요런식으로 올인 했습니다.ㅎㅎ

토플 공부를 하면 할수록

리스닝 문법 리딩 라이팅

각각의 파트가 따로 떨어진게 아니라

유기적으로 하나의 언어를 배우는 거란 사실이

피부로 와 닿았습니다.

그리고 토픽은 익숙해져서 거의 외우다시피 하는게 좋아요

저도 안나온다는 40토픽 빼고 다른 토픽들은

거의 한번씩 다 써봤어요

자주 나오는건 4~5번씩 쓰게 된 것도 있었죠

그렇게 하면 다른걸 해도

나중에 요 토픽에 쓰자~ 요런 생각을 할 수 있어서 좋습니다.

그리고 꾸준히 써서 감을 익히는게 참 중요합니다.

셤보기 1~2달 전부터는 하루도 안 빠지고 매일매일 썼습니다.

하루에 두번 쓴 적도 있구요

습관되면 할만합니다.

그리고 일단 쓰면 무엇이든 얻게 되어있습니다.

라이팅은 겁내지 마시고 정말 많이 쓰는게 중요합니다.

아무리 좋은 글 많이 읽고 그래도 자기글 쓰는건 다르더라구요

그리고 얘네들은 구체적인걸 정말루 좋아하더라구요

우리가 생각하기에 좀 유치하다 싶을정도로 세세하게

구체적으로 서술하는걸 좋아하던군요

흠 일단 구조를 간단히 말하면

본문을 2~3개로 나눈다음에 각각의 문단이 서로 중첩되면 안되고

논리적으로 명확히 분리 되게 한 다음에

그 각각의 논지를 뒷받침하는 구체적인 예들을 마니마니 쓰는게 중요합니다.

논리적으로 흐지부지 하면 절대 안돼요

그리고 뒷받침 예들도 확실히 그 주제문장과 연관이 되는것이어야 하지요

당연한 소리를 계속 하지만

원래 당연한 소리는 맞기 때문에 당연한 소리가 되는겁니당 ㅎㅎ

이렇게 토플을 끝낸 마당에 생각해보니

그야말로 '비결'이란건 어디에도 없더라구요

아주 이상한 방법만 아니라면 어떤 방법을 쓰든

열심히 포기하지 않고 꾸준히 노력한다면

목표한 바를 이루실 수 있을겁니다

화이팅입니다~!!! ^ㅡ^
=======================================================

 

 


라이팅 6점 받았어요...
저도 처음 글 써보네요...(점수 낮아서 쓸 엄두를 못냈음...--;)
오늘 성적표 왔는데 라이팅 6점이더라구요..
운이 되게 좋았다는 생각이 드는데요...^^;
암튼 제가 썼던거 잠깐 글 남길께요...(잘 기억은 안나지만.글두...)

제가 셤 봤을때 compare 문제였거든요..
첫인상으로 사람을 평가하는거에 대한 토픽이요..
전 첫인상으로 사람 평가하면 안된다고 의견을 잡고...

서론은 다들 쓰는것처럼 두 의견에 대해 조금씩 언급하고..

본론 1에서는 링컨이 했던 문장을 처음에 인용하면서
( 사람이 나이 40이 넘으면 자기 얼굴에 책임을 져야한다는 말...그거 인용함)
사람의 얼굴에 대해, 행동에 대해 평가 내리는것이 틀리지 않는 경우도 있다고 믿는 사람들이 있다는 말 하구..그만큼 첫인상이 사람에 대한 인식에 많은 영향을 미치기 때문이다..
하지만 그건 긴 시간을 보면 위험할 수 있다.

본론 2에서는 사람은 변하기 나름이다. 세월이 흐르면 변하듯이 사람도 변한다.
그렇기 때문에 첫인상으로 사람을 평가한다는 건 위험한거다. 그리고 저의 예를 들어서..
대학 친구중에 굉장히 옷도 잘입고, 깔끔하고 , 예의 바른 친구라 처음에 생각했었는데..
그게 나중에 알고보니 자기 자존심이 너무나 세서 그랬던거였다. 처음의 그런 예의바른 행동은 나중에 보니 다 형식적인 거여서 상처 굉장히 많이 받았구 그 이후로 난 첫인상으로 사람 평가 안한다...라고 썼어요..(그러고 보니 본문에 예시는 이거 하나뿐이네요...--;)

글구...결론으로 사람이 사람을 평가한다는건 정말로 어려운거다...우리도 지금 이순간도 변하고 있고 평가기준이란게 정해져있지 않기 때문이다. 하지만 짧은 시간동안의 평가로 사람을 잘못 판단하는 잘못을 행해선 안된다...라고 적었던거 같아요..

암튼...위에처럼 본문 2개쓰고...분량은 꽤 되었던거 같긴 해요...주저리주저리 써서리.
암튼 제가 느낀건...compare 문제는 다른 토픽에 비해 점수 잘나온다...
즉, compare문제 잘만쓰면 점수따는 문제다...
그리고, 제가 이번에 느낀건...제가 요 근래에 원서 읽는거에 재미를 붙여서..
원서로 된 소설책이나 에세이 같은걸 틈틈히 즐겨 읽었거든요..
그게 라이팅에 진짜 도움 많이 되었던거 같아요...거기서 봤던 표현들 있잖아요..
아..얘네는 같은 문장도 이런식으로 쓰네~하고 느꼈던걸...라이팅 쓸때 쪼금 비스무리하게 따라했던게 도움 많이 되었던거 같아요..
글구 본문 2개도 6점 받을 수 있다는걸 깨달음..
(주위에서 하두 본문 3개 써야 만점 받는다구 해서요..)

에구...저 같은 사람도 6점 나오는걸 보니..
분명 열심히 하면 노력은 자신을 배반하지 않나봅니다..
근데 그 노력을 좀 즐기는 방향으로 전환시키면 더 상승효과가 큰거 같아요..
라이팅 늘리는데는 원서 읽는게 진짜 좋다는걸 깨달았음다..
지금은 데미안 읽구 있는데 원서로 읽으니 진짜 기분 새롭네요..
암튼 토플 공부하시는 분들 모두 대박나시길 기원합니다~ 모두들 화이팅!!!!


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신종흔 | 조회 654 |추천 0 |2007.04.15. 12:55 http://cafe.daum.net/englishhouseusa/GUUt/6 

Dr. Shin영어공부 Story : (6) 효과적인 영작문 공부

 

           어떤 사람이 영작문을 잘 한다는 것은 그의 영어공부가 최고의 경지에 도달하였다는 하나의 좋은 증거가 된다. 왜냐하면, 훌륭한 영작문은 확실한 영문법 지식, 풍부한 영어어휘, 그리고 많은 영문독해를 통해 형성된 영어식 논리구조의 3박자가 완벽하게 조화를 이루어야만 가능한 것이기 때문이다. 

 

           필자가 본격적으로 영작문 공부를 하게 된 시기는 대학을 졸업하고 나서 1983년부터 1985년까지 3년간 미군부대에서 카투사(KATUSA: Korean Augmentation to the United States Army)병사로 근무할 때였다. 그 당시 맡은 직책이 미군과 한국군 사이를 연결하는 Liaison(연락관) 이었기 때문에 항상 미군에서 생산되는 영어문서를 한글로 번역하여 한국군에 전달하고, 또 한국군에서 생산되는 한글문서를 신속하게 영문으로 작성하여 미군에 전달하는 업무를 일상적으로 수행하고 있었다. 그러니, 자연스레 영작문을 매일 매일 해야 하는 상황에서, 중요했던 것은 정확한 영문법지식과 풍부한 영어어휘 그리고 영어식 논리로 무장하여 자연스러운 영어문장을 쓰는 것이었다.  

 

           이러한 상황에서 번역보다 어려운 것은 아무래도 영작문이었고, 어떻게 하면 군더더기가 없이 부드러운 영작문을 할까 늘 고민하게 되었다. 그러다 보니 항상 동료 미군들이 작성한 여러 가지 주제의 영문서신이나 자료들을 수시로 읽게 되고 또 미군부대 내의 구내도서관에 가서 여러 영문서적이나 잡지를 일상적으로 섭렵하면서 효과적이거나 아름다운 표현이 있으면 연필로 줄을 치거나 노트에 베껴 적으면서 그 표현을 다음에 영작문을 할 때 써먹어야 겠다고 다짐하는 버릇이 생기게 되었다.

 

           이 같은 습관은 군복무를 마치고 은행에서 12년간 근무하는 동안에도 계속되어 늘 좋은 영어문장을 읽거나 접하게 되면 그 문장들을 노트에 베껴 적거나 아니면 암기하려고 노력하였다.

 

           그러다가, 1998년 미국에 석사학위 공부를 하기 위해 왔을 때부터는 예문이 풍부한 아주 좋은 영영사전(English-English Dictionary)과 영어단어궁합사전(Collocation Dictionary)을 늘 가까이 두고서 어떤 문장을 영어로 쓸 때 마다 그 표현이 그 상황에 적확한 것인지 확인하곤 했다. 아울러, 미국에서 발간되는 신문(Washington Post New York Times)과 잡지(Harpers Magazine, Time, National Geographic, New Yorker, The Atlantic Monthly)를 꾸준하게 읽으면서 좋은 문장들을 일상적으로 읽고 또 그것들을 기억하고자 노력하였다. 사실, 좋은 영어문장을 쓰려면 많은 영문독서노력이 필요한 것이 사실이다. 어떤 학자들은 영작문의 80 % 이상이 좋은 영어문장을 여러 매체를 통해서 접하는 데서 온다고 한다.  이런 의미에서, 필자의 지난 9년간의 여러 매체를 통한 영어문장 읽기노력이 영작문 향상에 크게 기여를 한 셈이라 할 수 있다.  

 

           또한, 영작문을 문장 단위에서 하는 데서 그치지 않고 나아가 하나의 아카데믹한 에세이로 완성하기 위해, 별도로 영작문에 관한 책들을 구입하여 에세이 쓰는 방법을 꾸준하게 공부하였는데 그 대표적인 참고서로는 Great Paragraphs(Keith S. Folse et al.), Great Essays(Keith S. Folse et al), First Steps in Academic Writing(Ann Hogue), Introduction to Academic Writing(Alice Oshima & Ann Hogue), Writing Academic English(Alice Oshima & Ann Hogue), Sin and Syntax(Constance Hale), Style(Joseph M. Williams), Writing with Style(John R. Trimble), The Classic Guide to Better Writing(Rudolf Flesch & A. H. Lass), The Elements of Style(William Strunk, Jr. & E. B. White)와 같은 것들이 있었다. 한편, 이와 같은 영작문 참고서와 함께 같이 공부한 영어단어궁합사전으로 The BBI Dictionary of English Word Combinations가 있는데, 이 사전은 문장 단위의 영작문을 할 경우 Native Speaker인 백인들 조차 아주 껄끄러워하는 영어단어들 간의 자연스러운 조합을 아주 매끄럽게 할 수 있도록 도와주는 영작문 필수참고서인 것이다.

 

           끝으로, 좋은 영작문을 하려면 아주 아름다운 문체를 가진 영미문학작가들의 단편소설, 소설, , 에세이 등을 일상적으로 자주 접함으로써 그 문장들을 자기의 것으로 소화한 다음 나중에 자신이 영작문을 할 때 이를 적극 원용할 수 있으면 대단히 좋을 것이다. 영작문과 관련하여 필자가 그 동안 절실하게 느낀 점은 문법적으로 완전한 문장이 때로는 대단히 어색한 영어문장이 될 수 있다는 사실을 깨닫고, 될 수 있으면 최대한 영어의 Native Speaker 가 쓴 명문장을 많이 접하면서 그와 같은 Native Speaker의 감각으로 가장 영어다운 문장을 쓰는 능력을 기르는 것이 좋은 영작문의 첩경이라는 점이다. 이는 마치 피아노나 바이올린을 대가가 전문적으로 연주하는 것과 같은 이치이다. , 영작문을 할 때 마치 문법에 맞는 문장을 계속 나열하는 것과 같이 악보 만을 충실하게 쫓아서 그대로 연주하는 아마추어 연주가의 수준을 넘어서서, 대가의 연주와 같이 악보를 뛰어넘는 창의성과 상상력이 풍부한 훌륭한 연주가 나오게 하기 위해서는 바로 영어의 Native Speaker가 내는 자연스러운 목소리를 빌어서 나오는 것과 같은 아주 부드럽고 유창한 영작문을 해야 한다는 것이다


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영어 일기 쓰기가 어려운 이유
[퍼온곳 : http://hamo66.hihome.com/home.htm]


영어를 모국어로 하는 곳에서 오랜 시간 노출되어 영어에 익숙해지지 않는 한, 영어로 일기를 쓴다는 것은 어려운 일이다. 더군다나 우리나라처럼 불균형적인 영어 교육을 받는 교육 환경이기 때문에 영어일기 쓰기는 더더욱 어렵다. 거의 모든 학생들이 겁을 먹고 두려워 한다.



길고 어려운 독해 문제를 척척 풀어 내는 학생들이 아주 간단하고 쉬운 영어 문장 하나 쓸 때는 끙끙 앓는 소리를 할 정도다. 시험을 위한 준비 과정으로 영어를 공부하고 자주 영어를 사용할 수 있는 기회가 적어서도 그렇지만, 학생 대부분이 아주 기본적인 영문의 구조를 이해하고 있지 못하고 있고 아주 기초적인 동사의 사용법을 숙지하고 있지 않기 때문에 우리말 처럼 단어만 나열하려 한다. 그러다 보니 영어도 아니고 우리말도 아닌 엉터리 문장이 되고 만다.



긴 문장의 독해 문제를 해석시켜 보면 알고 있는 단어의 짜집기 해석이다. 그렇게 해도 대충의 의미는 파악되니까 문제 해결엔 문제가 없는 것이다. 점수는 높지만 실제 영어 실력이 빵점인 학생이 너무 많다. 고학년이 되어 기초 공부를 하자니 다 아는 것 같고 (실제는 잘 모르면서) 영어 점수는 높게 나오니까 본인들이 영어 실력이 좋은 줄로만 알고 있기 때문에, 제대로 된 영어 문장 하나 못쓰고, 이렇게 영어 문장의 구성이 안 되므로 영어 일기 쓰기는 물론 영어 말하기도 어렵고 두려운 것이다. 영어의 아주 기초적인 문법만 알아도 영어 일기 쓰기는 그리 어려운 일이 아니다.



영어 일기를 쓸 때는 처음엔 아주 간단하고 쉬운 문장부터 시작해야 한다. 처음부터 긴 문장을 쓰려 하기 때문에 체감 난이도만 높아지게 된다. 영어 일기를 쓰면서 영어 문장 구조의 이해를 돕는 쉬운 영문의 예문을 인용하는 것도 좋다.



영어 일기쓰기는 영작 공부가 아니다. 많은 학생들이 먼저 우리말로 일기를 쓴 후에 각 문장을 영어로 번역하려 하기 때문에 영어 일기 쓰기를 어렵게 생각한다. 영어와 우리말은 문장의 어순 뿐 아니라 정서를 표현하는 방법이 많이 다르다. 우리말 표현에 맞는 적절한 표현이 없을 수도 있다. 우리말에 딱 맞는 영어식 표현을 하려 하기 때문에 영어 일기 쓰기가 어렵기만 한 것이다.



영어로 일기를 쓰면 뭐가 좋을까?


당연히 영어 공부도 도움이 된다. 누구든 영어를 잘하려면 영어식 사고 방식을 가져야 한다고 쉽게 말 할 수 있다. 그러나 우리말을 하고 우리말을 쓰는 곳, 영어를 모국어로 하지 않는 우리 나라와 같은 환경에서 영어식 사고 방식은 당연히 어려운 일이다. 하루를 돌아 보는 일기를 쓰는 시간에라도 영어로 일기를 써 보자. 우리말 어순이 아닌 영어의 어순으로 말이다. 말의 순서를 우리말과 아주 다른 영어식 순서로 사고를 바꾸어 본다.
이렇듯 영어로 일기를 쓰면 잠시나마 영어식 사고를 할 수 있다. 즉 영어에 좀 더 익숙해지는 것이다.

시간이 지난 후엔, 지나간 일기 내용을 돌아보며 지난 일 즐거운 회상도 해 보고 반성도 하고 지금의 향상된 영어 실력에 감탄을 할 수도 있다.



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영작의 TIP 5 가지

http://blog.naver.com/hevhai/40001688823

우리가 영작을 해야 하는 목적은자신의 글이 해당 언어권의 사람들에게 읽혀 졌을 때 자신의 생각과 정보, 또는 주장하는 바를 효과적으로 전달하기 위함입니다.

그러기 위해서 영어권 사람들의 논리전개방법이나 그들의 문화에 대한 배경지식은 영작하는 기술 자체보다도 더 중요할 수 있습니다. 인간의 기본적인 생각과 느낌은 모든 사람들에게 공통적이지만 그것을 표현하는 방식은 제각각 일 수 있습니다. 한국말로 쓴 글이 한국인의 정서에 맞아야 하듯이 영어로 쓴 글은 영어권의 사람들의 정서에 맞아야 합니다.

영작의기 술적인 부분은 랭스테크와 같은 번역전문회사에서 할 수 있지만 글의 구성, 작가의 생각까지 번역해 드릴 수는 없습니다. 다른 사람들의 사고방식을 익히는 지름길은 단연 그 사람들의 환경을 "경험"하는 것일 겁니다.그러나 그것이 가능하지 않을 때 우리는 차선책으로 그것을 "배울"수 밖에 없습니다. 따라서 랭스테크에서는 영작을 목적으로 글을 쓸 때 염두에 두어야 할 점들에 대해서 간략하게 정리하였습니다.

1.글의 주제는 서두에 와야 합니다.

대부분 현대의 영작은 주제를 글의 첫 단락에 놓는 것을 선호합니다.

이것은 두 가지의 효과가 있습니다. 우선 글쓴이의 주장이 분명하게 와 닿습니다. 사람들은 매일매일 쏟아지는 정보의 홍수 속에서 모든 글들을 끝까지 차근차근 읽을 여유가 없습니다.

현대의 생활은 우리에게 너무 많은 것을 읽기를 강요하고 그래서 우리들은 글의 서두만 읽은 채 그 글을 더 읽을 것인가를 결정하게 됩니다.

특히 여러분의 글이 회사 면접용이라면 이 점을 고려하셔야 합니다. 수 백 명이 넘는 지원자의 글들을 차근차근 처음부터 끝까지 읽을 만한 여유가 있는 회사는 아마 없을 것입니다.

미국에서 근무하고 있는 저의 경우하루에도 수 십 통의 E-mail로 그날의 지시사항을 전달 받기도 하고 정보를 교류하기도 합니다만,대부분 경우는 처음 한두 단락만 읽고 그 정보가나에게 필요한 것인지 아닌지를 판단하게 됩니다.심지어는 글의 타이틀만 보고 삭제할 때도 있습니다.

타이틀이 중요성에 대해서는 후에 따로 서술하겠습니다. 반면 한국의 글들은 아직까지 많은 경우 기승전결의 방법을 따르고 있습니다. 이는 마치 삼국지에서 유비가 제갈공명을 세 번 찾아가고 우여곡절 끝에 적벽대전에서 조조에게 승리를 거두는 장면을 연상시킵니다. 여러분이 의도한 바와는 달리 그런 글은 극적인 효과를 거두기도 전에 휴지통으로 들어갈 수 있습니다.
다음은 제가 오늘 제 옆에 놓여진 신문, 잡지들을 들고 무작위로 발췌한 기사내용의 첫 부분입니다.

a. 2000년 새해를 취재하는 인터넷사이트에 관한 내용: The dawning of 2000 has spawned hundreds of Internet sites and live video feeds devoted to chronicling the event, ranging from the scientific to the apocalyptic.

b. 이동식 주택 단지에서 일어난 일:DEVINE- The owner of a trailer park here may face cruelty to animal charges for shooting to death a tenant's dog.

c. 컴퓨터 구매에 대한 조언: Buying a high performance PC used to be fairly straight forward: You choose the highest CPU speed available and added as much memory as you could afford. Not anymore.

d. 해커의 위협에 대한 견해: Given the vulnerabilities that we know about ... and the kinds of tools that we've seen in the intruder community, it certainly is possible to bring the entire Internet down for a short period of time. (But) keeping it down for a long period of time is a much more difficult task.

모두 처음 한두 문장 내에서 바로 바로 주제에 접근하는 것을(심지어 글의 간략한 내용요약까지: a, b) 보실 수 있을 겁니다.

2. 전달할내용을 축소하세요.

너무 거창해지지 말라는 뜻입니다. 이 말은 글의 내용이 구체적이어야 한다는 말과도 상통합니다.아마 여러분은 스스로 자신만은 예외라고 생각하실 지 모르지만, 놀랍게도 제가 경험한 대다수의 글들은 그렇지 못했습니다. 글쓴이는 늘 너무 거대한 주제를 생각하는 경향이 강했고 따라서 구체적으로 무슨 말을 하는지 애매모호한 경우가 많았습니다. 예를 들어 여러분 자신이 회사의 사장이 된다면 어떤 개혁을 하고 싶냐는 질문에 대해 에세이를 쓰도록 요구 받았을 경우 어떻게 쓰시겠습니까?

1.회사의 체질을 개선하고, 2.세계화의 추세에 발맞추며, 3.종업원과 회사의 공동협력에 더욱 노력을 기울이겠다는 생각을 하신다면 저의관점으로는 영작으로 실패입니다. 모두 아주 일반적이고 추상적인 내용일 뿐 구체적인 제시가 하나도 없습니다.

만약 위와 같은 의도가 있다면....

1. 불필요한 연장근무를 최대한 줄이고, 2.종업원에게 컴퓨터와 인터넷 교육을 지원하고, 3.종업원들에게 주식의 배분을 확장시키겠다 라는식으로 자신의 목적을 분명하게 전달하여야 합니다.

참고로 저는 미국 직장의 어떤 구두 시험에서 비슷한 질문을 받고 아마 주차장을 우선 확장할 것이라고 대답한 기억이 있습니다.

그 대답 때문만은 아니었겠지만 전 그 시험에서 다른 경쟁자들을 제치고 우승하였습니다.환상보다는 실리를 우선시하는 것이 구미의 경향입니다.

여러분이 심각하게 거대한 비젼을 제시하려고 노력할 때 상대는 아마도 고개를 기우뚱거릴지도 모릅니다. 또 하나의 예를 들지요.만약 여러분이 유학을 준비하고 있고, 입학지원서의 항목 중 본 학교를 지원하게 된 동기를 쓰라고 한다면 무엇을 쓰시겠습니까. 본인이 지원하는 학과가 개설되어 있고 커리큘럼이 충실하며 주변의 물가가 싸서 생활에 부담이 덜 되서 선택하게 되었다라고 하는 정도로 쓰면 족합니다. 그 학교가 국제화를 선도하는 미래지향적인 학교라서 선택했다는 쪽으로 기울어지지 않도록 주의하십시오.

3. 논리적으로 서술하세요.

이 말은 두 번째 항목과도 관련이 있습니다.

논리적으로 서술기 위한 첫번째 방법은 자신의 주제를 특정한 범위 안에서 다루는 것입니다.

본인의 지식과 경험으로 감당하기 벅찬 주제를 다루려고 할 때 논리적이 되기 힙듭니다.

왜냐하면 자신이 말하고자 하는 바에 대한 충분한 예제를 들 수가 없기 때문입니다.

예제가풍부한 글은 글쓴이의 주장을 보완시켜주는 가장 큰 힘을 발휘하며 따라서 영어에서 예제는 아주 불가결한 부분입니다. 예제가 제시되지 않는 글은 "당신의 생각"일 뿐 "사실의 기술"이 될 수 없습니다.

두 번째 방법은 감정이나 인정에 호소하지 않는 것입니다. 외국에서 경험한 바에 의하면 한국인들은 다른 민족들보다 쉽게 감정에 치우칩니다. 이 글을 읽고 혹시라도 "그래서 그게 어떻다라는 거야?"하고 순간적으로 반문을 하시는 분이 있다면 당신이 바로 그 예입니다.

애걸 복걸, 호소조의 행동은 이들에게 설득력을 갖지 못합니다. 같은 내용이라도 논리적이고 당당한 자세로 서술하는 것이 중요합니다.이를테면 당신회사제품을 고객에게 설득시킬 때"우리 회사는 IMF에도 불구하고 전 종업원이 단결하여 어려움을 극복한 회사이며 본 제품의 사용은 기업뿐만 아니라 국가경제에도 큰 기여를 하는. . ."라는 식의 서술이 한국외 에서도 설득력을 갖으리라고 생각하면 잘못입니다

.같은 상황을 저라면 어려운 상황을 극복한 회사의제정적 내실을 고객에게 설득 함으로서 고객의 입장에서 그들의 이익이 보장 받을 수 있다라는 쪽으로 접근할 것 같습니다. 분쟁이 생겨서 논쟁이 불가피할 때 역시 이런 입장을 견지해야 합니다.쟁점과 직접 연관되지 않는 부분은 절대로 언급하지 말로 자신의 주장을 구체적인 예를 들어서 피력하는 것이 이길 수 있는 방법입니다.

만약 그러고도 못 이겼다면 그것은 애당초 당신의 잘못이었다는 뜻일 것입니다. "목소리 큰사람이 이긴다"는 룰은 골목길교통사고에서나 적용되는 법칙이겠지요.

4. 분명한 제목을 정하세요.

추상적인 제목을 정하는 것이 한국의 관례인 듯 합니다. 그러나 영어에서 제목은 그 내용을 반영하는 것이어야 합니다. 저는 "사랑","우정", "꿈", "희망", "정열"따위의 제목들을 같고 있는 글들을 영작해야 할 경우가 여러 번 있었습니다. 문학작품을 쓰지 않는 한 제목은 글의 내용을 충실히 반영하는 것으로 선택하세요. 이를테면 본 글의 경우 여러분들은 각 항목의 제목만 훑어 보고도 중요한 내용을 충분히 메모하실 수 있을 것입니다.

5. 검독을 꼭 부탁하세요.

완벽한 글은 없습니다. 그러나 더 좋은 글은 있습니다. 수년동안 하루에도 수없이 많은 리포트를 쓰는 한 미국인 박사는 현재도 거의 예외 없이 자신의 글에 대해서 영어가 모국어도 아닌 저에게 검독을 부탁합니다. 그러나 놀랍게도 실수는 거의 매번 발견됩니다. 내용에 대한 검독이든, 문법적인 검독이든 간에 검독은 필수적입니다. 검독하는 사람의 실력이 저의 예에서도 보여지듯이 원작자보다 꼭 우수할 필요는 없습니다. 하수도 나름대로 고수에게 훈수할 부분은 있으니까요.

중요한 것은 잘못된 부분을 찾아내서 바른 방향으로 수정을 하는 것입니다. 아울러 검독하는 사람에게 설득 못하는 글이 다른 사람을 설득시킬 수는 없는 일입니다.

만약 주위에 자신의 글을 검독 해 줄만한 사람이 없거나 원작단계에서부터 보다 전문적인 도움을 원한다면 랭스테크와 같은 전문 번역기관에 상의하시는 것이 바람직합니다. 영작을 목적으로 쓰는 글이라면 쌍방의 언어에 대한 경험이 있는 이로부터의 조언은 필수적입니다. 껍데기만 영어로 포장된 한국 글로 읽는 이의 고개를 갸우뚱거리게 할 의향이 없으시다면 말입니다. 검독, 이것은 할 수 만 있다면 백번을 해도 지나치지않을 것입니다.

이외에도 물론 고려하여 할 많은 부분들이 있습니다. 글을 간결 명료하게 정리하는 것, 주어를 문장의 서두에 둠으로서 강한 의미를 전달하는 기술, 불필요하게 중복되는 말 처리하기, 글의 스타일이나 문체에 대한 고려, 일상적 미국식 표현들에 대한 이해, 그리고 피하여야 할 문법적 실수까지 아마 많은 부분을 거론할 수 있을 것입니다.

랭스테크에서는 지속적으로 이런 분야에 대한 연구와 자료수집을 통하여 우리나라영작의 수준을 한단계 끌어올리는 견인차 역할을 할 기관이라 믿어 의심치 않으며, 고객 여러분에게는 더욱 정확하고 책임 있는 번역을 제공하도록 꾸준히 노력할 전문 번역기관입니다.

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