STUDENT NEWS

Florida Primary Results

Aired February 1, 2012 - 04:00:00   ET

THIS IS A RUSH TRANSCRIPT. THIS COPY MAY NOT BE IN ITS FINAL FORM AND MAY BE UPDATED.

CARL AZUZ, HOST, CNN STUDENT NEWS: Hi, I`m Carl Azuz, broadcasting from the CNN Center in Atlanta, Georgia. We welcome all of our viewers around the world to the first February edition of CNN Student News.

We`re leading things off today in Florida, with the race for the Republican presidential nomination. Three states held primary or caucus events earlier last month, and a different candidate won each contest. So some experts were looking to see if the Florida primary would bring some clarity to the Republican field.

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AZUZ (voice-over): The goal of these primaries and caucuses is to win delegates. You need 1,044 of them this year to be the Republican Party`s nominee for president. There were 50 delegates up for grabs in Florida, and yesterday`s primary was winner-take-all. You win the primary, you get all 50 delegates.

Representative Ron Paul and former Senator Rick Santorum moved on to campaign in other states, because they didn`t think they had much chance of winning Florida. That left former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney and former House Speaker Newt Gingrich.

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AZUZ: As the results came in last night, CNN projected that Mitt Romney would win the Florida primary.

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AZUZ (voice-over): cnnstudentnews.com is where you can always get the latest details on developing stories, like yesterday`s Florida primary. The full results came in after we produced this show. But you can find them. They`re going to be in the "Spotlight" section on our home page.

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AZUZ: We`re staying in Florida now to talk about a series of car crashes that happened along a major highway over the weekend. At least 12 cars and seven tractor-trailers were involved in these accidents. You can see some of what happened in the pictures we`re showing you right here.

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AZUZ (voice-over): The highway was covered in smoke from a nearby brush fire. That made it very difficult for drivers to see. Ten people were killed in the wrecks. More than 12 other people were taken to hospitals.

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AZUZ: Chad Myers spoke with CNN`s Anderson Cooper about why the smoke was covering the highway. They also talked about the conditions that led to these crashes over the weekend. Have a listen.

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CHAD MYERS, CNN METEOROLOGIST: There was a fire in the swamp and in the forest, only 60 acres, not that big. But in a regular fire, smoke goes up and keeps going up. But in Florida, it didn`t keep going up. The reason why is because there was a layer of warm air up here. So as soon as the smoke tried to go up, it hit the layer of warm air and came back down. It`s called inversion.

The most famous inversion ever was in Donora, Pennsylvania, many, many years ago where people died because they suffocated from the smoke that just wouldn`t leave the valley.

That`s the Allegheny-Monongahela Valley near Pittsburgh I`m talking about, but that`s what happened. The smoke was trapped near the surface. It couldn`t go away. People drove into the smoke and they were hitting cars that were already stopped in the roadway.

ANDERSON COOPER, HOST, AC360: And a lot of survivors, I mean, they were saying the smoke and fog was so thick, they couldn`t see -- you know, a woman said they couldn`t even see the hazards. This isn`t that common, though, is it?

MYERS: It is not. What happened here, this smoke and fog got in a bowl, this bowl is just south of Gainesville. I`ve driven through this bowl many times on I-75, it`s the prairie right through here. Literally, it looks like you`re driving through the Serengeti.

You look to the left and you look to the right, and it`s completely flat, but all around you are hills. When you drive this, you`re literally - - you look for giraffes, because you think you`re in Africa. It looks crazy, high elevations here. High elevations there.

And right through there, it`s kind of a swampy area. And that air, that smoke settled right into that low area, into the bottom of that bowl and that`s what caused the visibility down to literally zero.

COOPER: And I guess, one thing investigators will be looking into, is could this have been avoided? I mean, should there have been warnings or road closures?

MYERS: Well, Anderson, there were road closures. The roads were closed for three hours, and then the smoke kind of cleared, because the wind blew just a little bit. But then half an hour after they re- opened the road, the crashes happened and 10 people died.

So I guess, you have to think the road probably should have stayed closed. There`s not much you can do. Once you are in this smoke, you are in it.

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AZUZ: February 1st marks the beginning of Black History Month. It`s a time to honor the accomplishments and contributions of African-Americans. When Dr. Carter G. Woodson started the tradition in 1926, it was a week long. The celebration was expanded into a month in 1976 by President Gerald Ford.

Throughout our coverage of Black History Month, we`re going to focus on some of the people, the places, the moments that have been significant in African-American history. We`re starting with a lunch counter and an event that happened 52 years ago today.

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AZUZ (voice-over): That`s when four black college students walked into a Woolworth`s in Greensboro, North Carolina. They sat down at the "whites only" counter to order lunch. They stayed in their seats after they were refused service, and launched a peaceful protest for civil rights. The Woolworth`s lunch counter in Greensboro was desegregated later on that year.

Some other events on February 1st: in 1790, the U.S. Supreme Court met for the first time. The first court had six justices, not nine like the U.S. has now.

In 1865, President Abraham Lincoln signed the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which would abolish slavery. The amendment was ratified by the states later on that year.

And in 2003, the space shuttle Columbia broke apart while reentering the Earth`s atmosphere. All seven crew members were killed.

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AZUZ: Checking out some other international headlines, starting off the coast of Italy, that`s where a cruise ship ran aground last month. And experts have been running a salvage operation around the ship. Now they`re recommending that the underwater part of that mission end.

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AZUZ (voice-over): The underwater salvage has stopped and restarted a few times before. But these experts say it`s getting too dangerous to continue at all. Salvage operations above the water line will still go on. Officials say it could take seven to 10 months to remove the wreckage of the ship. But that process won`t start until the fuel that was on board is removed.

Next up, the Middle Eastern nation of Syria. The Arab League sent in monitors to see if the Syrian government was ending the violence that`s been going on there.

Yesterday, Arab League officials told the United Nations Security Council that Syria is operating a quote, "killing machine" against peaceful protests. Syrian officials say they`re the victim of false information. They accuse the Arab League of interfering with Syrian affairs.

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AZUZ: The U.N. is considering a resolution that would call for Syria`s president to step down. Meantime, the violence has not stopped. Reports said at least 37 people were killed in Syria yesterday.

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AZUZ (voice-over): U.N. representatives are part of our next headline, too. This one is in Japan. It involves the country`s nuclear facilities.

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AZUZ: A team from the IAEA, the U.N.`s International Atomic Energy Agency, spent the past week in Japan. They were looking over the nuclear safety reviews that were ordered after last year`s meltdown at a nuclear power plant. The group said Japan can go ahead with so-called stress tests on the country`s other nuclear facilities.

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AZUZ (voice-over): Most of the country`s nuclear plants were taken offline after the meltdown, which one of the worst nuclear disasters ever. The IAEA also recommended that Japanese regulators create more comprehensive plans for dealing with severe accidents.

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UNIDENTIFIED FEMALE: Is this legit? The U.S. federal government requires American children to attend school.

It`s not true. Individual states, not the federal government, set laws about school attendance.

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AZUZ (voice-over): Every state requires children to get an education. What they don`t say is how kids are supposed to get it. Last year, around 250,000 American students went to school online. They did that in what are called virtual schools, when your classes taught over the computer and the teacher`s there to kind of guide you through the lessons.

Some parents think their kids do better in virtual schools than traditional schools. Others like the flexible schedule. The critics say there`s more to learning than just getting information. There`s class discussion. There`s interacting with other students. One thing many supporters and critics agree on is that the effectiveness of online learning depends on the individual student.

We want to hear what you all think. Would you want to attend a virtual school? Think about the pros and cons of this one, then go to our blog at cnnstudentnews.com and tell us your opinions.

And remember, when you post on our blog, we only want you to tell us your first names, so please, no other information, just first names only.

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AZUZ: Before we go we want to show you a lineup from Australia.

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AZUZ (voice-over): But this one ain`t breaking any laws, just world records. Look at this. What you see is 145 water skiers all being pulled by a single boat.

The record-setting attempt started off with 154 people up on skis. Nine of them fell off. They`re OK, just all hurt that they won`t be part of the record. But it`s their own fault. They could have had their names in the record books, too. All they had to do was toe the line.

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AZUZ: But for those nine, their dreams were just washed out. Still, 145 people riding in unison? That`s a sight you have to "ski" to believe. Can the record be topped? You`ll just have to "wake" and see. It`s time for us to dock this program and its puns. For CNN Student News, I`m Carl Azuz. We`ll see you soon.

END

(영어뉴스) NPR 5분 뉴스 (2012-2-1)

Headlines:
이란 핵개발, 미국안보에 최대 위협/미공군 예맨 알카에다 공습/미국무장관 클린턴, 유엔 시리아재제 촉구/미공화당 대선후보선출 플로리다 예비선거, 역사상 최대의 흑색선거/도난 사회보장번호 이용한 세금환급 사기사건/NFL 소송사건/New World Trade Center 설계결함 발견

카이로스와 크로노스

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아주 오래전 시계는 고가품의 하나로 시계를 차는 사람은 부유한 계층의 사람임을 보여주는 표가 되기도 했다. 그러나 요즈음은 누구나 시계를 차고 있다. 그렇지만 우리가 하루에 몇번이나 시간을 볼까 생각해보면 그리 많은 횟수는 아닌 것 같다. 그만큼 우리는 시간을 의식하지 않고 살고 있다는 것이다.

헬라어에는 시간(때)을 두가지로 표현한다, '크로노스’(chronos)와 ‘카이로스’(kairos)가 그것이다.‘크로노스’는 단순히 흘러가는 시간이요 일련의 불연속적인 우연한 사건을 뜻하고 ‘카이로스’는 때가 꽉 찬 시간으로 구체적인 사건의 순간, 감정을 느끼는 순간, 구원의 기쁨을 누리는 의미있는 순간이다. 카이로스는 자신의 존재의미를 느끼는 절대적인 시간이다.

성경 속 969세를 산 므두셀라의 시간이 크로노스였다면 33년의 짧은 생애동안 위대한 삶을 산 예수 그리스도의 시간은 카이로스였다고 할 수 있다．

임신부가 임신한 후 열달동안 아이를 복중에 간직하고 있다가 아이를 낳았다고 할 때 그 열 달은 흘러가는 시간으로서의 ‘크로노스’이고 해산의 고통을 경험하면서 아이를 잉태하는 바로 그 순간,즉 산모의 생명에 대한 기쁨과 다 이루었다는 안도의 평온함을 갖는 순간이 곧 ‘카이로스’이다.


얼마전 대선을 위한 후보문제가 화두가 되엇던 때가 있었다. 야당이든 여당이든 오랜 시간을 지내오면서 저마다 자기들의 업적을 주장하고 자기들이 집권해야 나라가 잘된다고 말했다. 그러나 엄밀히 말해 그들은 자기들에게 주어진 시간을 정당하게 사용하지 않은 사람들이다. 즉 크로노스의 시간만을 보냈다는 것이다.

역사는 카이로스의 시간을 살아가는 자에게 의미가 있다. 그때 그 시절에 무슨 일이 일어났는가는 교과서에서 다 알 수 있다. 그것은 크로노스적 시간이해이다. 카이로스의 시간속에 사는 사람은 비록 ‘그 때 그 일’을 경험하지 못하였다하여도‘살아있는 정신’을 가진 사람이다.

철새처럼 이리저리 양지를 좇아가는 사람은 카이로스의 시간을 모른다. 그들은 카이로스적인 살아있는 정신들이 소멸되고 크로노스적인 삶을 살고 있는 것이다. 우리는 역사 속에서 부정과 불의, 투쟁과 타협, 전쟁과 싸움, 가난과 억압 등의 수많은 사건들을 경험한다. 크로노스의 시간을 사는 사람은 역사가 자신을 어떻게 판단할 지에 관심이 없다. 오직 현재만이 중요할 뿐이다. 그러나 카이로스의 시간을 사는 사람은 끊임없이 자신을 반추하며 사는 사람이다.


크로노스는 영어의 chronology와 관련되는 것으로 연대기란 뜻이다. 순차적인 역사를 말한다. 고려시대, 조선왕조, 대한제국, 일제강점기, 분단시대, 이렇게 연대기적으로 역사를 기록하고 이해하는 관점을 chronology라고 한다. 이 관점에서 보면 오늘은 21세기 초반이다. 그런데 그리스도인이 이해하는 카이로스 역사관은 질적으로 다르다. 카이로스는 하나님과의 관계성 안에 있는 시간이다. 그것은 또한 더불어 사는 삶의 연대성 안에 있는 시간이다. 따라서 '하나님을 사랑하고 이웃을 네 몸과 같이 사랑하라"는 말씀은 카이로스의 시간을 살아가야 함을 지시한다고 하겠다.

크로노스의 시간은 끝이 없다. 그러나 카이로스의 시간에는 그 마지막이 있다. 즉 하나님의 정하신 때가 있다는 말이다. 그 때를 일컬어 파루시아라고 한다.


파루시아라는 단어는 헬라어 Para와 ousia가 결합된 말로서, Para는 "along side" 즉 '나란히' 라는 뜻이고 ousia는 "substance" 즉 '본질 혹은 실재'란 뜻이다. 이 두 단어를 결합한 뜻은 '본질과 나란히 온다'라는 뜻이다. 즉, 파루시아는 "실재로서 오시는 예수"의 재림을 의미한다. 예수께서는 우리가 예수의 영적 임재를 믿는 것처럼 그 날에 몸으로(bodily) 혹은 육체적으로(physical) 다시 오실 것이다. 이것은 실재적 사건이다. 우리 모두가 실제로 체험하게 될 재림을 의미하는 이 종말론적 단어는 예수께서 종말에 심판의 주로 다시 오신다는 것을 강하게 암시한다.


그리스도인은 누구나 파루시아의 도래 앞에 놓여있다. 아무도 그날의 심판 앞에서 자유롭지 못하다. 파루시아는 하나님의 전적인 주권 안에서 우리를 향해 내려오기 때문이다. 초대 교회는 언제나 임박한 파루시아에 대한 기대로 충만해 있었다. 그렇기에 그들은 짐승의 이빨 앞에서도, 불타는 기둥에 묶여 죽어가면서도 믿음을 저버리지 않았다. 그들은 인간의 시간으로 잴 수 없는 파루시아의 때가 다가오고 있음을 보았다. 그러나 그것은 시간적인 개념만은 아니었다. "심판의 주"로 오시는 예수를 바라보았기에 세상을 두려워하지 않았으며, 세상에서 얻는 즐거움을 과감히 벗어 던지고 무소유의 삶을 택할 수 있었던 것이다.


루터의 유명한 말 중에 꼬람 데오(Coram Deo)라는 말이 있다. 이 말은 "하나님 앞에서"라는 뜻이다. 그리스도인은 "하나님 앞에 서 있는 사람"이다. 결코 "사람 앞에 서 있는 이"가 아니다. 하나님 앞에 서 있는 그리스도인은 오늘을 종말처럼 산다. 날마다 순간마다 파루시아를 느끼며 살기에 결코 주어진 시간을 탕진하거나 삶을 포기하지 않는다. 그 어떤 질곡에서도 파루시아에 대한 대망은 그를 "하나님 앞에 선 인간"으로 다잡아 놓으며, 일곱 번 넘어져도 여덟 번 다시 일어나게 한다. 여기에 그리스도인의 진정한 소망이 있다.


바울은 예수의 재림이 없으면 우리의 믿음이 헛되다고 말한 바 있다. 파루시아는 실재할 것이기에, 파루시아를 기다리는 우리 믿음의 길과 기다림이 세상의 눈으로는 미련하게 보인다할지라도 그리스도인으로 하여금 삶을 책임있게 살아가도록 하는 능력(power)이 되며 가장 지혜로운 선택이 되는 것이다.

카이로스의 시간이 끝나는 지점 즉 파루시아의 때를 알고 있는 사람은 크로노스의 시간을 카이로스의 시간으로 변화시킨다. 우리는 크로노스의 시간에 살지만 동시에 카이로스의 시간 안에 있다. 누구나 크로노스의 시간을 살지만 카이로스의 시간을 사는 사람에게는 역사와 하나님 앞에서의 책임을 감당해야 할 자기 몫의 시간이 있다. 그리스도인은 그 시간을 만들어 가는 사람이다.

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기독교대한성결교회 주님의교회(http://lord.kehc.org) 목사 박찬희

Chronos and Kairos

Fr. Patrick Reardon

Whereas English has only one word for time, other European languages more carefully distinguish between time as instance ("How many times?") and time as sequence ("How much time?").

The ancient Greeks, who thought a great deal about time (among many subjects), also had two different words that we English-speakers are forced to translate with the single word "time." Since there is a very profound difference between those two words, and because time is an important theological subject in the New Testament (itself written in Greek), it is useful to examine this difference.

The first Greek term is chronos, meaning time on the move, time as before and after, time as the future passing through the present and so becoming the past. From this Greek word chronos we derive such English terms as chronic, chronicle, and chronology. Thus, we call an illness chronic if it lasts a long time. A chronicle is an account of events through a sequence of time. Chronology is the itemized, studied measurement of time.

Indeed, measurement is one of the distinguishing characteristics of chronos, which is a quantitative concept. Time that cannot be measured is not chronos. Time in this sense is dimensional, quantifiable; it can be "accounted for."

It is very important, moreover, to measure chronos in order to give it identifiable shape, to gain imaginative and rational control over it, because chronos is otherwise wild and destructive. The Greeks believed it ate its children. Chronos, you see, is sort of crazy. It is not only dimensional; it readily becomes demented.

Indeed, time does not truly exist in the way that other familiar things exist. I cannot hear it. It has no fragrance. I can't point to it and say, "Aha, there it is. Don't let it get away!" Time in a sense is terribly close to non-existence. After all, chronos deals with the past and future, neither of which has real existence.

No wonder, then, that chronos is so difficult to measure. I mean, how do we enclose time and say, "hey, stand still, you, so we can size you up." The only way to measure time, in fact, is by some arbitrary reference to space, and we normally use spatial prepositions with respect to it, such as the earth's journey around the sun, or the shadow's daily progression across a sundial, and the cockcrow through the night.

Now chronos, because it is made up of some things that don't exist anymore and other things that don't yet exist, is a true image of non-existence, a veritable icon of death. In fact, only dead time can be measured. Moreover, chronos is, in this respect, rather ghoulish. Even dead, it continues to feed on us. We may speak of "killing time," but it invariably ends up killing us. Chronos is, therefore, an image of everlasting death, what the Bible calls the "bottomless pit," or hell. What is hell but the reign of death in ongoing, unending sequence?

In addition to chronos, however, the Greeks also spoke of time as a moment, time as occasion, time as qualitative rather than quantitative, time as significant rather than dimensional. This second word for time is kairos.

Strictly speaking, we don't measure kairos. We don't ask someone, for example, "How much Christmas did you have?" We inquire, rather, "what sort of Christmas did you have?" With kairos we employ the category of qualis, not quantum.

The reason that time in the sense of kairos cannot be measured is because it is always a now. A now is obviously indivisible; an instant is, so to speak, too brief to account for. By the time you stop to measure a now, it is already gone. Now is punctuated by a swift, indecipherable passage from this to that. Furthermore, if now cannot be measured, it can also not be counted. It is futile, for example, and probably a threat to sanity, to ask how many nows there are in an hour.

Unlike the past and the future, nonetheless, the now really exists. Indeed, now is the only time that does exist. In the strictest sense, "there's no time like now."

Kairos, because it is present, is an icon of eternal life. To experience the now, after all, one must be alive. The dead know nothing of now. Therefore, the now, the kairos, is an icon of the life of heaven. Indeed, eternal life is an everlasting now, in which there is no sequence, no before and after.

Eternity is not a long time. Strictly speaking, there is simply no length to it. Nothing elapses. The infinite is not measurable. Thus, "when we've been there ten thousand years/ bright shining as the sun/ we've no less days to sing God's praise/ than when we've first begun."

Here on earth, kairos is time as significant and decisive. This is the time of which St. Paul speaks in 2 Corinthians 6:1--"In a favorable time (kairo dekto) I heard you, and in a day of salvation I have helped you. Behold, now is the most favorable time (nun kairos euprósdektos); behold, now (nun) is the day of salvation." The only time we can ever really seize is the now. Now is the present instant, the marked pulsing of the heart, the moment to lay hold on eternity.

(영어뉴스) NPR 5분 뉴스 (2012-1-30)

Headlines:
미공화당대선후보 예비선거, 플로리다주에서 밋 롬니 우세/유럽 재정위기 대처 브뤼셀 회담 관련/플로리다주, 시계불량으로 다중 추돌 사고/이태리 크루즈선 난파 관련/리비아 임시정부, 카다피군이 버린 무기들이 악용될 가능성 제기/이란, 유엔 핵감시단 활동 관련/영화계 소식

너 자신이 되라

너를 기뻐하라

하나님이 지으신 너를 기뻐하라

아무리 형편없어 보여도

그 모습을 기뻐하라

네 속에 있는 하나님을 기뻐하라

네 한계를 인정하라

네 무능력을 인정하라

네가 죄인임을 인정하라

영원히 너 자신을 벗어날 수 없음을 고백하라

네 노력 네 인내 네 지혜에 의지하지 마라

오직 하나님의 자비에 의지하라

세상에 공짜는 없다

이미 치러진 무한대의 희생

오직 예수 그리스도의 십자가에 의지하라

             기  도

하나님의 구하시는 제사는 상한 심령이라 하나님이여 상하고 통회하는 마음을 주께서 멸시치 아니하시리이다

[시편 51:17]

이 땅을 위하여 성을 쌓으며 성 무너진 데를 막아서서 나로 멸하지 못하게 할 사람을 내가 그 가운데서 찾다가 얻지 못한 고로 내가 내 분으로 그 위에 쏟으며 내 진노의 불로 멸하여 그 행위대로 그 머리에 보응하였느니라
[에스겔 22:30-31]

사망의 그늘에 앉아 죽어가는 나의 백성들

절망과 굶주림에 갇힌 저들은 내 마음의 오랜 슬픔

나는 이제 일어나 저들의 멍에를 꺽고 눈물 씻기기 원하는데

누가 내게 부르짖어 저들을 구원케 할까

누가 나를 위해 가서 나의 사랑을 전할까
나는 이제 보기 원하네 나의 자녀들 살아나는 그 날
기쁜 찬송 소리 하늘에 웃음 소리 온 땅 가득한 그 날

방언은 필수은사, 신유는 최고은사인가?

동영상 보기:
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7097674663101001039#docid=-3289344538001077510

(대구 동신교회 권성수 목사)

내용요약:
방언 : 방언은사는 필수은사가 아님. 모든 사람이 다 받아야 하는 것은 아님.
         D.L. 무디 목사, 옥한흠 목사 등 세계적인 영적지도자들 중에도 방언을 못하는(안하는) 분들 많았음.
         권목사 자신도 방언을 못함. 자신에게는 다른 더 큰 은사들 있음.
         또한 가짜방언 하는 사람들 엄청나게 많음 (마귀방언, 최면술방언).
                  
         반드시 교회에 덕을 끼치는 방법으로 사용되어야 함.
         방언의 동기는 반드시 사랑이어야. 사랑을 이루기 위해 사용되어야. 사랑이 최고의 방언임.
         결코 자랑하기 위해서 해서는 안됨.
         다른 사람들에게 방해가 될 정도로 해서는 안됨.
         다른 사람들이 듣기 아주 거북한 방언은 하지 말아야. (이상한 소리, 짐승 소리, 악령의 소리 등등) 
         
         특수한 경우지만 실제 외국어(독일어, 중국어, 일본어, 영어 등등) 방언도 있음.
         방언 통변의 은사도 실제로 있지만 가짜가 무지하게 많음.

신유 : 신유(치료)의 은사는 최고의 은사가 아님. 가짜 신유은사도 엄청나게 많음.
         받았더라도 굉장히 어려운 일임. 치료를 위해 기도를 하고 나면 자신의 힘은 다 빠져 나감.
         100% 다 치료되지도 않음. 대체로 10%정도 치료된다고 함.
          

문봉주(전 뉴질랜드 대사) / 방언기도의 유익 / 동산교회집회

The Executive Branch

The power of the Executive Branch is vested in the President of the United States, who also acts as head of state and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President is responsible for implementing and enforcing the laws written by Congress and, to that end, appoints the heads of the federal agencies, including the Cabinet. The Vice President is also part of the Executive Branch, ready to assume the Presidency should the need arise.

The Cabinet and independent federal agencies are responsible for the day-to-day enforcement and administration of federal laws. These departments and agencies have missions and responsibilities as widely divergent as those of the Department of Defense and the Environmental Protection Agency, the Social Security Administration and the Securities and Exchange Commission.

Including members of the armed forces, the Executive Branch employs more than 4 million Americans.

The President | The Vice President
Executive Office of the President | The Cabinet

The President

The President is both the head of state and head of government of the United States of America, and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.

Under Article II of the Constitution, the President is responsible for the execution and enforcement of the laws created by Congress. Fifteen executive departments — each led by an appointed member of the President's Cabinet — carry out the day-to-day administration of the federal government. They are joined in this by other executive agencies such as the CIA and Environmental Protection Agency, the heads of which are not part of the Cabinet, but who are under the full authority of the President. The President also appoints the heads of more than 50 independent federal commissions, such as the Federal Reserve Board or the Securities and Exchange Commission, as well as federal judges, ambassadors, and other federal offices. The Executive Office of the President (EOP) consists of the immediate staff to the President, along with entities such as the Office of Management and Budget and the Office of the United States Trade Representative.

The President has the power either to sign legislation into law or to veto bills enacted by Congress, although Congress may override a veto with a two-thirds vote of both houses. The Executive Branch conducts diplomacy with other nations, and the President has the power to negotiate and sign treaties, which also must be ratified by two-thirds of the Senate. The President can issue executive orders, which direct executive officers or clarify and further existing laws. The President also has unlimited power to extend pardons and clemencies for federal crimes, except in cases of impeachment.

With these powers come several responsibilities, among them a constitutional requirement to "from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient." Although the President may fulfill this requirement in any way he or she chooses, Presidents have traditionally given a State of the Union address to a joint session of Congress each January (except in inaugural years) outlining their agenda for the coming year.

The Constitution lists only three qualifications for the Presidency — the President must be 35 years of age, be a natural born citizen, and must have lived in the United States for at least 14 years. And though millions of Americans vote in a presidential election every four years, the President is not, in fact, directly elected by the people. Instead, on the first Tuesday in November of every fourth year, the people elect the members of the Electoral College. Apportioned by population to the 50 states — one for each member of their congressional delegation (with the District of Columbia receiving 3 votes) — these Electors then cast the votes for President. There are currently 538 electors in the Electoral College.

President Barack Obama is the 44th President of the United States. He is, however, only the 43rd person ever to serve as President; President Grover Cleveland served two nonconsecutive terms, and thus is recognized as both the 22nd and the 24th President. Today, the President is limited to two four-year terms, but until the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1951, a President could serve an unlimited number of terms. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected President four times, serving from 1932 until his death in 1945; he is the only President ever to have served more than two terms.

By tradition, the President and the First Family live in the White House in Washington, D.C., also the location of the President's Oval Office and the offices of the his senior staff. When the President travels by plane, his aircraft is designated Air Force One; he may also use a Marine Corps helicopter, known as Marine One while the President is on board. For ground travel, the President uses an armored Presidential limousine.

The Vice President

The primary responsibility of the Vice President of the United States is to be ready at a moment's notice to assume the Presidency if the President is unable to perform his duties. This can be because of the President's death, resignation, or temporary incapacitation, or if the Vice President and a majority of the Cabinet judge that the President is no longer able to discharge the duties of the presidency.

The Vice President is elected along with the President by the Electoral College — each elector casts one vote for President and another for Vice President. Before the ratification of the 12th Amendment in 1804, electors only voted for President, and the person who received the second greatest number of votes became Vice President.

The Vice President also serves as the President of the United States Senate, where he or she casts the deciding vote in the case of a tie. Except in the case of tiebreaking votes, the Vice President rarely actually presides over the Senate. Instead, the Senate selects one of their own members, usually junior members of the majority party, to preside over the Senate each day.

Joseph R. Biden is the 47th Vice President of the United States. Of the 45 previous Vice Presidents, nine have succeeded to the Presidency, and four have been elected to the Presidency in their own right. The duties of the Vice President, outside of those enumerated in the Constitution, are at the discretion of the current President. Each Vice President approaches the role differently — some take on a specific policy portfolio, others serve simply as a top adviser to the President.

The Vice President has an office in the West Wing of the White House, as well as in the nearby Eisenhower Executive Office Building. Like the President, he also maintains an official residence, at the United States Naval Observatory in Northwest Washington, D.C. This peaceful mansion, has been the official home of the Vice President since 1974 — previously, Vice Presidents had lived in their own private residences. The Vice President also has his own limousine, operated by the United States Secret Service, and flies on the same aircraft the President uses — but when the Vice President is aboard, the craft are referred to as Air Force Two and Marine Two.

Executive Office of the President

Every day, the President of the United States is faced with scores of decisions, each with important consequences for America's future. To provide the President with the support the he or she needs to govern effectively, the Executive Office of the President (EOP) was created in 1939 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The EOP has responsibility for tasks ranging from communicating the President's message to the American people to promoting our trade interests abroad.

The EOP, overseen by the White House Chief of Staff, has traditionally been home to many of the President's closest advisers. While Senate confirmation is required for some advisers, such as the Director of the Office of Management and Budget, most are appointed with full Presidential discretion. The individual offices that these advisors oversee have grown in size and number since the EOP was created. Some were formed by Congress, others as the President has needed them — they are constantly shifting as each President identifies his needs and priorities, with the current EOP employing over 1,800 people.

Perhaps the most visible parts of the EOP are the White House Communications Office and Press Secretary's Office. The Press Secretary provides daily briefings for the media on the President's activities and agenda. Less visible to most Americans is the National Security Council, which advises the President on foreign policy, intelligence, and national security.

There are also a number of offices responsible for the practicalities of maintaining the White House and providing logistical support for the President. These include the White House Military Office, which is responsible for services ranging from Air Force One to the dining facilities, and the Office of Presidential Advance, which prepares sites remote from the White House for the President's arrival.

Many senior advisors in the EOP work near the President in the West Wing of the White House. However, the majority of the staff is housed in the Eisenhower Executive Office Building, just a few steps away and part of the White House compound.

The Cabinet

The Cabinet is an advisory body made up of the heads of the 15 executive departments. Appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, the members of the Cabinet are often the President's closest confidants. In addition to running major federal agencies, they play an important role in the Presidential line of succession — after the Vice President, Speaker of the House, and Senate President pro tempore, the line of succession continues with the Cabinet offices in the order in which the departments were created. All the members of the Cabinet take the title Secretary, excepting the head of the Justice Department, who is styled Attorney General.

Department of Agriculture

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) develops and executes policy on farming, agriculture, and food. Its aims include meeting the needs of farmers and ranchers, promoting agricultural trade and production, assuring food safety, protecting natural resources, fostering rural communities, and ending hunger in America and abroad.

The USDA employs more than 100,000 employees and has an annual budget of approximately $95 billion. It consists of 17 agencies, including the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, the Food and Nutrition Service, and the Forest Service. The bulk of the department's budget goes towards mandatory programs that provide services required by law, such as programs designed to provide nutrition assistance, promote agricultural exports, and conserve our environment. The USDA also plays an important role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries.

The United States Secretary of Agriculture administers the USDA.

Department of Commerce

The Department of Commerce is the government agency tasked with improving living standards for all Americans by promoting economic development and technological innovation.

The department supports U.S. business and industry through a number of services, including gathering economic and demographic data, issuing patents and trademarks, improving understanding of the environment and oceanic life, and ensuring the effective use of scientific and technical resources. The agency also formulates telecommunications and technology policy, and promotes U.S. exports by assisting and enforcing international trade agreements.

The Secretary of Commerce oversees a $6.5 billion budget and approximately 38,000 employees.

Department of Defense

The mission of the Department of Defense (DOD) is to provide the military forces needed to deter war and to protect the security of our country. The department's headquarters is at the Pentagon.

The DOD consists of the Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, as well as many agencies, offices, and commands, including the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Pentagon Force Protection Agency, the National Security Agency, and the Defense Intelligence Agency. The DOD occupies the vast majority of the Pentagon building in Arlington, VA.

The Department of Defense is the largest government agency, with more than 1.3 million men and women on active duty, nearly 700,000 civilian personnel, and 1.1 million citizens who serve in the National Guard and Reserve forces. Together, the military and civilian arms of DOD protect national interests through war-fighting, providing humanitarian aid, and performing peacekeeping and disaster relief services.

Department of Education
The mission of the Department of Education is to promote student achievement and preparation for competition in a global economy by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access to educational opportunity.

The Department administers federal financial aid for education, collects data on America's schools to guide improvements in education quality, and works to complement the efforts of state and local governments, parents, and students.

The U.S. Secretary of Education oversees the Department's 4,200 employees and $68.6 billion budget.

Department of Energy

The mission of the Department of Energy (DOE) is to advance the national, economic, and energy security of the United States.

The DOE promotes America's energy security by encouraging the development of reliable, clean, and affordable energy. It administers federal funding for scientific research to further the goal of discovery and innovation — ensuring American economic competitiveness and improving the quality of life for Americans.

The DOE is also tasked with ensuring America's nuclear security, and with protecting the environment by providing a responsible resolution to the legacy of nuclear weapons production.

The United States Secretary of Energy oversees a budget of approximately $23 billion and more than 100,000 federal and contract employees.

Department of Health and Human Services

The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) is the United States government's principal agency for protecting the health of all Americans and providing essential human services, especially for those who are least able to help themselves. Agencies of HHS conduct health and social science research, work to prevent disease outbreaks, assure food and drug safety, and provide health insurance.

In addition to administering Medicare and Medicaid, which together provide health insurance to one in four Americans, HHS also oversees the National Institutes of Health, the Food and Drug Administration, and the Centers for Disease Control.

The Secretary of Health and Human Services oversees a budget of approximately $700 billion and approximately 65,000 employees. The Department's programs are administered by 11 operating divisions, including 8 agencies in the U.S. Public Health Service and 3 human services agencies.

Department of Homeland Security

The missions of the Department of Homeland Security are to prevent and disrupt terrorist attacks; protect the American people, our critical infrastructure, and key resources; and respond to and recover from incidents that do occur. The third largest Cabinet department, DHS was established by the Homeland Security Act of 2002, largely in response to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. The new department consolidated 22 executive branch agencies, including the U.S. Customs Service, the U.S. Coast Guard, the U.S. Secret Service, the Transportation Security Administration, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency.

DHS employs 216,000 people in its mission to patrol borders, protect travelers and our transportation infrastructure, enforce immigration laws, and respond to disasters and emergencies. The agency also promotes preparedness and emergency prevention among citizens. Policy is coordinated by the Homeland Security Council at the White House, in cooperation with other defense and intelligence agencies, and led by the Assistant to the President for Homeland Security.

Department of Housing and Urban Development

The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) is the federal agency responsible for national policies and programs that address America's housing needs, that improve and develop the nation's communities, and that enforce fair housing laws. The Department plays a major role in supporting homeownership for lower- and moderate-income families through its mortgage insurance and rent subsidy programs.

Offices within HUD include the Federal Housing Administration, which provides mortgage and loan insurance; the Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity, which ensures all Americans equal access to the housing of their choice; and the Community Development Block Grant Program, which helps communities with economic development, job opportunities, and housing rehabilitation. HUD also administers public housing and homeless assistance.

The Secretary of Housing and Urban Development oversees approximately 9,000 employees on a budget of approximately $40 billion.

Department of the Interior

The Department of the Interior (DOI) is the nation's principal conservation agency. Its mission is to protect America's natural resources, offer recreation opportunities, conduct scientific research, conserve and protect fish and wildlife, and honor our trust responsibilities to American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and our responsibilities to island communities.

DOI manages 500 million acres of surface land, or about one-fifth of the land in the United States, and manages hundreds of dams and reservoirs. Agencies within the DOI include the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Minerals Management Service, and the U.S. Geological Survey. The DOI manages the national parks and is tasked with protecting endangered species.

The Secretary of the Interior oversees about 70,000 employees and 200,000 volunteers on a budget of approximately $16 billion. Every year it raises billions in revenue from energy, mineral, grazing, and timber leases, as well as recreational permits and land sales.

Department of Justice

The mission of the Department of Justice (DOJ) is to enforce the law and defend the interests of the United States according to the law; to ensure public safety against threats foreign and domestic; to provide federal leadership in preventing and controlling crime; to seek just punishment for those guilty of unlawful behavior; and to ensure fair and impartial administration of justice for all Americans.

The DOJ is comprised of 40 component organizations, including the Drug Enforcement Administration, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the U.S. Marshals, and the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The Attorney General is the head of the DOJ and chief law enforcement officer of the federal government. The Attorney General represents the United States in legal matters, advises the President and the heads of the executive departments of the government, and occasionally appears in person before the Supreme Court.

With a budget of approximately $25 billion, the DOJ is the world's largest law office and the central agency for the enforcement of federal laws.

Department of Labor

The Department of Labor oversees federal programs for ensuring a strong American workforce. These programs address job training, safe working conditions, minimum hourly wage and overtime pay, employment discrimination, and unemployment insurance.

The Department of Labor's mission is to foster and promote the welfare of the job seekers, wage earners, and retirees of the United States by improving their working conditions, advancing their opportunities for profitable employment, protecting their retirement and health care benefits, helping employers find workers, strengthening free collective bargaining, and tracking changes in employment, prices, and other national economic measurements.

Offices within the Department of Labor include the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the federal government's principal statistics agency for labor economics, and the Occupational Safety & Health Administration, which promotes the safety and health of America's working men and women.

The Secretary of Labor oversees 15,000 employees on a budget of approximately $50 billion.

Department of State

The Department of State plays the lead role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. Major responsibilities include United States representation abroad, foreign assistance, foreign military training programs, countering international crime, and a wide assortment of services to U.S. citizens and foreign nationals seeking entrance to the U.S.

The U.S. maintains diplomatic relations with approximately 180 countries — each posted by civilian U.S. Foreign Service employees — as well as with international organizations. At home, more than 5,000 civil employees carry out the mission of the Department.

The Secretary of State serves as the President's top foreign policy adviser, and oversees 30,000 employees and a budget of approximately $35 billion.

Department of Transportation

The mission of the Department of Transportation (DOT) is to ensure a fast, safe, efficient, accessible and convenient transportation system that meets our vital national interests and enhances the quality of life of the American people.

Organizations within the DOT include the Federal Highway Administration, the Federal Aviation Administration, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, the Federal Transit Administration, the Federal Railroad Administration and the Maritime Administration.

The U.S. Secretary of Transportation oversees approximately 55,000 employees and a budget of approximately $70 billion.

Department of the Treasury

The Department of the Treasury is responsible for promoting economic prosperity and ensuring the soundness and security of the U.S. and international financial systems.

The Department operates and maintains systems that are critical to the nation's financial infrastructure, such as the production of coin and currency, the disbursement of payments to the American public, the collection of taxes, and the borrowing of funds necessary to run the federal government. The Department works with other federal agencies, foreign governments, and international financial institutions to encourage global economic growth, raise standards of living, and, to the extent possible, predict and prevent economic and financial crises. The Treasury Department also performs a critical and far-reaching role in enhancing national security by improving the safeguards of our financial systems, implementing economic sanctions against foreign threats to the U.S., and identifying and targeting the financial support networks of national security threats.

The Secretary of the Treasury oversees a budget of approximately $13 billion and a staff of more than 100,000 employees.

Department of Veterans Affairs

The Department of Veterans Affairs is responsible for administering benefit programs for veterans, their families, and their survivors. These benefits include pension, education, disability compensation, home loans, life insurance, vocational rehabilitation, survivor support, medical care, and burial benefits. Veterans Affairs became a cabinet-level department in 1989.

Of the 25 million veterans currently alive, nearly three of every four served during a war or an official period of hostility. About a quarter of the nation's population — approximately 70 million people — are potentially eligible for V.A. benefits and services because they are veterans, family members, or survivors of veterans.

The Secretary of Veterans Affairs oversees a budget of approximately $90 billion and a staff of approximately 235,000 employees.

The Legislative Branch

Established by Article I of the Constitution, the Legislative Branch consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate, which together form the United States Congress. The Constitution grants Congress the sole authority to enact legislation and declare war, the right to confirm or reject many Presidential appointments, and substantial investigative powers.

The House of Representatives is made up of 435 elected members, divided among the 50 states in proportion to their total population. In addition, there are 6 non-voting members, representing the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and four other territories of the United States. The presiding officer of the chamber is the Speaker of the House, elected by the Representatives. He or she is third in the line of succession to the Presidency.

Members of the House are elected every two years and must be 25 years of age, a U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and a resident of the state (but not necessarily the district) they represent.

The House has several powers assigned exclusively to it, including the power to initiate revenue bills, impeach federal officials, and elect the President in the case of an electoral college tie.

The Senate is composed of 100 Senators, 2 for each state. Until the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913, Senators were chosen by state legislatures, not by popular vote. Since then, they have been elected to six-year terms by the people of each state. Senator's terms are staggered so that about one-third of the Senate is up for reelection every two years. Senators must be 30 years of age, U.S. citizens for at least nine years, and residents of the state they represent.

The Vice President of the United States serves as President of the Senate and may cast the decisive vote in the event of a tie in the Senate.

The Senate has the sole power to confirm those of the President's appointments that require consent, and to ratify treaties. There are, however, two exceptions to this rule: the House must also approve appointments to the Vice Presidency and any treaty that involves foreign trade. The Senate also tries impeachment cases for federal officials referred to it by the House.

In order to pass legislation and send it to the President for his signature, both the House and the Senate must pass the same bill by majority vote. If the President vetoes a bill, they may override his veto by passing the bill again in each chamber with at least two-thirds of each body voting in favor.

The Legislative Process | Powers of Congress | Government Oversight

The Legislative Process

The first step in the legislative process is the introduction of a bill to Congress. Anyone can write it, but only members of Congress can introduce legislation. Some important bills are traditionally introduced at the request of the President, such as the annual federal budget. During the legislative process, however, the initial bill can undergo drastic changes.

After being introduced, a bill is referred to the appropriate committee for review. There are 17 Senate committees, with 70 subcommittees, and 23 House committees, with 104 subcommittees. The committees are not set in stone, but change in number and form with each new Congress as required for the efficient consideration of legislation. Each committee oversees a specific policy area, and the subcommittees take on more specialized policy areas. For example, the House Committee on Ways and Means includes subcommittees on Social Security and Trade.

A bill is first considered in a subcommittee, where it may be accepted, amended, or rejected entirely. If the members of the subcommittee agree to move a bill forward, it is reported to the full committee, where the process is repeated again. Throughout this stage of the process, the committees and subcommittees call hearings to investigate the merits and flaws of the bill. They invite experts, advocates, and opponents to appear before the committee and provide testimony, and can compel people to appear using subpoena power if necessary.

If the full committee votes to approve the bill, it is reported to the floor of the House or Senate, and the majority party leadership decides when to place the bill on the calendar for consideration. If a bill is particularly pressing, it may be considered right away. Others may wait for months or never be scheduled at all.

When the bill comes up for consideration, the House has a very structured debate process. Each member who wishes to speak only has a few minutes, and the number and kind of amendments are usually limited. In the Senate, debate on most bills is unlimited — Senators may speak to issues other than the bill under consideration during their speeches, and any amendment can be introduced. Senators can use this to filibuster bills under consideration, a procedure by which a Senator delays a vote on a bill — and by extension its passage — by refusing to stand down. A supermajority of 60 Senators can break a filibuster by invoking cloture, or the cession of debate on the bill, and forcing a vote. Once debate is over, the votes of a simple majority passes the bill.

A bill must pass both houses of Congress before it goes to the President for consideration. Though the Constitution requires that the two bills have the exact same wording, this rarely happens in practice. To bring the bills into alignment, a Conference Committee is convened, consisting of members from both chambers. The members of the committee produce a conference report, intended as the final version of the bill. Each chamber then votes again to approve the conference report. Depending on where the bill originated, the final text is then enrolled by either the Clerk of the House or the Secretary of the Senate, and presented to the Speaker of the House and the President of the Senate for their signatures. The bill is then sent to the President.

When receiving a bill from Congress, the President has several options. If the President agrees substantially with the bill, he or she may sign it into law, and the bill is then printed in the Statutes at Large. If the President believes the law to be bad policy, he may veto it and send it back to Congress. Congress may override the veto with a two-thirds vote of each chamber, at which point the bill becomes law and is printed.

There are two other options that the President may exercise. If Congress is in session and the President takes no action within 10 days, the bill becomes law. If Congress adjourns before 10 days are up and the President takes no action, then the bill dies and Congress may not vote to override. This is called a pocket veto, and if Congress still wants to pass the legislation, they must begin the entire process anew.

Powers of Congress

Congress, as one of the three coequal branches of government, is ascribed significant powers by the Constitution. All legislative power in the government is vested in Congress, meaning that it is the only part of the government that can make new laws or change existing laws. Executive Branch agencies issue regulations with the full force of law, but these are only under the authority of laws enacted by Congress. The President may veto bills Congress passes, but Congress may also override a veto by a two-thirds vote in both the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Article I of the Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress and the specific areas in which it may legislate. Congress is also empowered to enact laws deemed "necessary and proper" for the execution of the powers given to any part of the government under the Constitution.

Part of Congress's exercise of legislative authority is the establishment of an annual budget for the government. To this end, Congress levies taxes and tariffs to provide funding for essential government services. If enough money cannot be raised to fund the government, then Congress may also authorize borrowing to make up the difference. Congress can also mandate spending on specific items: legislatively directed spending, commonly known as "earmarks," specifies funds for a particular project, rather than for a government agency.

Both chambers of Congress have extensive investigative powers, and may compel the production of evidence or testimony toward whatever end they deem necessary. Members of Congress spend much of their time holding hearings and investigations in committee. Refusal to cooperate with a Congressional subpoena can result in charges of contempt of Congress, which could result in a prison term.

The Senate maintains several powers to itself: It ratifies treaties by a two-thirds supermajority vote and confirms the appointments of the President by a majority vote. The consent of the House of Representatives is also necessary for the ratification of trade agreements and the confirmation of the Vice President.

Congress also holds the sole power to declare war.

Government Oversight

Oversight of the executive branch is an important Congressional check on the President's power and a balance against his discretion in implementing laws and making regulations.

A major way that Congress conducts oversight is through hearings. The House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform and the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Government Affairs are both devoted to overseeing and reforming government operations, and each committee conducts oversight in its policy area.

Congress also maintains an investigative organization, the Government Accountability Office (GAO). Founded in 1921 as the General Accounting Office, its original mission was to audit the budgets and financial statements sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Director of the Office of Management and Budget. Today, the GAO audits and generates reports on every aspect of the government, ensuring that taxpayer dollars are spent with the effectiveness and efficiency that the American people deserve.

The executive branch also polices itself: Sixty-four Inspectors General, each responsible for a different agency, regularly audit and report on the agencies to which they are attached.

The Judicial Branch

Where the Executive and Legislative branches are elected by the people, members of the Judicial Branch are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.

Article III of the Constitution, which establishes the Judicial Branch, leaves Congress significant discretion to determine the shape and structure of the federal judiciary. Even the number of Supreme Court Justices is left to Congress — at times there have been as few as six, while the current number (nine, with one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices) has only been in place since 1869. The Constitution also grants Congress the power to establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and to that end Congress has established the United States district courts, which try most federal cases, and 13 United States courts of appeals, which review appealed district court cases.

Federal judges can only be removed through impeachment by the House of Representatives and conviction in the Senate. Judges and justices serve no fixed term — they serve until their death, retirement, or conviction by the Senate. By design, this insulates them from the temporary passions of the public, and allows them to apply the law with only justice in mind, and not electoral or political concerns.

Generally, Congress determines the jurisdiction of the federal courts. In some cases, however — such as in the example of a dispute between two or more U.S. states — the Constitution grants the Supreme Court original jurisdiction, an authority that cannot be stripped by Congress.

The courts only try actual cases and controversies — a party must show that it has been harmed in order to bring suit in court. This means that the courts do not issue advisory opinions on the constitutionality of laws or the legality of actions if the ruling would have no practical effect. Cases brought before the judiciary typically proceed from district court to appellate court and may even end at the Supreme Court, although the Supreme Court hears comparatively few cases each year.

Federal courts enjoy the sole power to interpret the law, determine the constitutionality of the law, and apply it to individual cases. The courts, like Congress, can compel the production of evidence and testimony through the use of a subpoena. The inferior courts are constrained by the decisions of the Supreme Court — once the Supreme Court interprets a law, inferior courts must apply the Supreme Court's interpretation to the facts of a particular case.

The Supreme Court of the United States | The Judicial Process

The Supreme Court of the United States

The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the land and the only part of the federal judiciary specifically required by the Constitution.

The Constitution does not stipulate the number of Supreme Court Justices; the number is set instead by Congress. There have been as few as six, but since 1869 there have been nine Justices, including one Chief Justice. All Justices are nominated by the President, confirmed by the Senate, and hold their offices under life tenure. Since Justices do not have to run or campaign for re-election, they are thought to be insulated from political pressure when deciding cases. Justices may remain in office until they resign, pass away, or are impeached and convicted by Congress.

The Court's caseload is almost entirely appellate in nature, and the Court's decisions cannot be appealed to any authority, as it is the final judicial arbiter in the United States on matters of federal law. However, the Court may consider appeals from the highest state courts or from federal appellate courts. The Court also has original jurisdiction in cases involving ambassadors and other diplomats, and in cases between states.

Although the Supreme Court may hear an appeal on any question of law provided it has jurisdiction, it usually does not hold trials. Instead, the Court's task is to interpret the meaning of a law, to decide whether a law is relevant to a particular set of facts, or to rule on how a law should be applied. Lower courts are obligated to follow the precedent set by the Supreme Court when rendering decisions.

In almost all instances, the Supreme Court does not hear appeals as a matter of right; instead, parties must petition the Court for a writ of certiorari. It is the Court's custom and practice to "grant cert" if four of the nine Justices decide that they should hear the case. Of the approximately 7,500 requests for certiorari filed each year, the Court usually grants cert to fewer than 150. These are typically cases that the Court considers sufficiently important to require their review; a common example is the occasion when two or more of the federal courts of appeals have ruled differently on the same question of federal law.

If the Court grants certiorari, Justices accept legal briefs from the parties to the case, as well as from amicus curiae, or "friends of the court." These can include industry trade groups, academics, or even the U.S. government itself. Before issuing a ruling, the Supreme Court usually hears oral arguments, where the various parties to the suit present their arguments and the Justices ask them questions. If the case involves the federal government, the Solicitor General of the United States presents arguments on behalf of the United States. The Justices then hold private conferences, make their decision, and (often after a period of several months) issue the Court's opinion, along with any dissenting arguments that may have been written.

The Judicial Process

Article III of the Constitution of the United States guarantees that every person accused of wrongdoing has the right to a fair trial before a competent judge and a jury of one's peers.

The Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments to the Constitution provide additional protections for those accused of a crime. These include:

• A guarantee that no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without the due process of law
• Protection against being tried for the same crime twice ("double jeopardy")
• The right to a speedy trial by an impartial jury
• The right to cross-examine witnesses, and to call witnesses to support their case
• The right to legal representation
• The right to avoid self-incrimination
• Protection from excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishments

Criminal proceedings can be conducted under either state or federal law, depending on the nature and extent of the crime. A criminal legal procedure typically begins with an arrest by a law enforcement officer. If a grand jury chooses to deliver an indictment, the accused will appear before a judge and be formally charged with a crime, at which time he or she may enter a plea.

The defendant is given time to review all the evidence in the case and to build a legal argument. Then, the case is brought to trial and decided by a jury. If the defendant is determined to be not guilty of the crime, the charges are dismissed. Otherwise, the judge determines the sentence, which can include prison time, a fine, or even execution.

Civil cases are similar to criminal ones, but instead of arbitrating between the state and a person or organization, they deal with disputes between individuals or organizations. If a party believes that it has been wronged, it can file suit in civil court to attempt to have that wrong remedied through an order to cease and desist, alter behavior, or award monetary damages. After the suit is filed and evidence is gathered and presented by both sides, a trial proceeds as in a criminal case. If the parties involved waive their right to a jury trial, the case can be decided by a judge; otherwise, the case is decided and damages awarded by a jury.

After a criminal or civil case is tried, it may be appealed to a higher court — a federal court of appeals or state appellate court. A litigant who files an appeal, known as an "appellant," must show that the trial court or administrative agency made a legal error that affected the outcome of the case. An appellate court makes its decision based on the record of the case established by the trial court or agency — it does not receive additional evidence or hear witnesses. It may also review the factual findings of the trial court or agency, but typically may only overturn a trial outcome on factual grounds if the findings were "clearly erroneous." If a defendant is found not guilty in a criminal proceeding, he or she cannot be retried on the same set of facts.

Federal appeals are decided by panels of three judges. The appellant presents legal arguments to the panel, in a written document called a "brief." In the brief, the appellant tries to persuade the judges that the trial court made an error, and that the lower decision should be reversed. On the other hand, the party defending against the appeal, known as the "appellee" or "respondent," tries in its brief to show why the trial court decision was correct, or why any errors made by the trial court are not significant enough to affect the outcome of the case.

The court of appeals usually has the final word in the case, unless it sends the case back to the trial court for additional proceedings. In some cases the decision may be reviewed en banc — that is, by a larger group of judges of the court of appeals for the circuit.

A litigant who loses in a federal court of appeals, or in the highest court of a state, may file a petition for a "writ of certiorari," which is a document asking the Supreme Court to review the case. The Supreme Court, however, is not obligated to grant review. The Court typically will agree to hear a case only when it involves a new and important legal principle, or when two or more federal appellate courts have interpreted a law differently. (There are also special circumstances in which the Supreme Court is required by law to hear an appeal.) When the Supreme Court hears a case, the parties are required to file written briefs and the Court may hear oral argument.

출처: http://blog.daum.net/wanjeong/588


120108 히5:1-7 심한 통곡과 눈물로 간구와 소원을 올렸고

예수님이 십자가 지시기 전에 기도하러 겟세마네 동산에 올라가실 때 베드로, 요한, 야고보 세 제자를 데리고 가셨는데 그들에게 말씀하시길 “내 마음이 매우 고민하여 죽게 되었으니 ...... ”하셨다.(마26:38) 그리고 “내 아버지여 만일 할 만하시거든 이 잔을 내게서 지나가게 하옵소서 그러나 나의 원대로 마옴시고 아버지의 원대로 하옵소서” 기도하셨다.

이상 볼 때, 예수님은 십자가의 죽음을 매우 큰 고통으로 여기셨고 가능하면 이 죽음을 피하게 해달라는 기도를 올리셨던 것을 알 수 있다. 예수님은 십자가의 죽음을 두려움 없이 쉽게 맞지 않으셨다. 아무 고통의 감정 없이 기계적으로 쉽게 맞으셨던 것이 아니다. 우리와 똑같이 죽음을 두려워하셨고 십자가를 큰 고통으로 맞으셨다.

예수님은 그때 기도하실 때 얼굴을 땅에 대고 하셨다.(마26:39) 간절한 기도의 모습이다. 그리고 기도의 땀방울이 떨어져 핏방울 같이 되었다.(눅22:44) 얼마나 애절하게 기도하셨던 것일까! 오늘 본문에서는 “육체에 계실 때에 자기를 죽음에서 능히 구원하실 이에게 심한 통곡과 눈물로 간구와 소원을 올렸고” 하였다.(히5:7)

여기서 두 가지 사실을 깨닫게 된다.

첫째, 우리를 위한 예수님의 대속의 죽음은 얼마나 큰 고통과 눈물의 죽음이었던가 깨닫게 된다. 우리 대신 죽으신 예수님의 은혜와 사랑에 우리는 뭐라 말해야 할까?

둘째, 예수님은 하나님 아버지에게 자신의 마음을 솔직하게 통곡과 눈물로 쏟아내셨다는 사실을 깨닫게 된다. 우리의 기도는 솔직해야 한다. 우리의 기도는 마음을 쏟아내는 기도여야 한다. 예수님은 십자가 지고 가는 당신을 향해 눈물 흘리는 여인들을 향해 “나를 위해 울지 말고 너희와 너희 자녀를 위해 울어라” 하셨다.(눅23:28) 예수님의 이 말씀은 이렇게 들린다. “너희와 너희 자녀를 위해 울 일이 얼마나 많으냐? 너희는 왜 울지 않느냐?” 예수님의 이 말씀에 이렇게 기도하게 된다. “예수님, 내 눈이 밝아져 이 세상의 울어야 할 일들을 볼 수 있게 해주세요. 예수님, 내 눈이 밝아져 또한 나 자신의 울어야 할 처지를 보게 해주세요. 그리고 예수님, 무엇보다 당신을 신뢰하는 마음을 주셔서 당신 앞에 나의 모든 힘겨움과 슬픔을 솔직히 쏟아낼 수 있게 해주세요. 당신이 겟세마네에서 그렇게 하셨던 것처럼 요.”

예수님의 겟세마네 기도의 끝은 십자가 지는 결단이셨다. 예수님은 당신의 고통을 놓고 기도하시다가 이어서 불쌍한 죄인들을 위한 기도를 하셨고 마지막으로 그들을 위해 십자가 지겠다는 결단을 내리셨다. 예수님이 심한 통곡과 눈물로 간구와 소원을 올리실 때, 죄로 인해 심판당할 불쌍한 영혼들을 위해 그렇게 기도하셨다.

새해 우리 교회의 표어는 “더불어 마음을 같이 하여 오로지 기도에 힘쓰더라”다. 눈물로 말할 때 가장 호소력 있다. 기도할 때 가장 힘 있게 하는 것은 눈물로 기도할 때일 것이다. 새해, 우리 모두 마음을 같이하여 기도에 힘쓰자. 눈물로 기도하기까지 하자.

이용도 목사님은 24세에 결핵판정을 받아 친구 이환신의 고향인 평남 강동으로 요양을 갑니다. 그때가 1925년이었고 이용도와 이환신은 신학생이었습니다.

둘이 강동에 가자 교회에서 주의 종들이 왔다고 부흥회를 해 달라고 부탁해
둘은 밤새 기도하고 강단에 서게 되었습니다.

설교는 이환신이, 사회는 이용도가 맡았는데
이용도는 앞에 나가 계속 눈물을 흘렸습니다.
그날 부흥회는 눈물의 부흥회였고
그날 이후 이용도 목사님이 가서 말씀 전하는 교회마다 마루바닥이 눈물로 젖었습니다.
언젠가는 설교를 한 마디도 하지 않고 울기만 했고 교우들도 다 눈물로 뒹굴었다고 합니다.

이용도 목사는 1901년 생이고 1933년에 죽었습니다.

독립운동을 하다 세 차례 감옥 생활을 했을 정도로 그는 일제에 수난 당하는 민족을 사랑했습니다.
불쌍한 백성 앞에서 눈물이 수르르 났습니다.
그는 당시로서는 회생이 어려운 폐병에 걸렸습니다. 불쌍한 자신의 처지에 눈물이 수르르 났습니다.
그는 십자가의 예수님을 뜨겁게 만났습니다. 십자가 사랑에 눈물이 수르르 났습니다.