아시아최초로 통·번역 박사 학위 취득, 아시아태평양경제협력체(APEC) 회의·아시아유럽정상회의(ASEM)·국제의원연맹(IPU) 총회 등 1천8백여 회 국제회의 통역, 전두환·노태우·김영삼·김대중 전 대통령과 노무현 대통령 등이 가진 정상회담 12차례 통역, 28년 동안 통역을 위해 68개국 방문, 외국어 관련 서적 20권 출간….

이처럼 화려한 이력을 자랑하는 주인공은 전문 동시통역사 최정화 교수(50·한국외국어대 통역번역대학원)다. 그 누구보다 영어에 능통한 그는 어떻게 영어공부를 하라고 조언할까?

“영어는 자기 의견을 다른 이에게 전달하기 위한 수단일 뿐이에요. 하지만 영어를 수단이 아닌 목적으로 여기고 공부를 하다 보니 영어시험에서 높은 점수를 받기는 하지만 외국인과 대화하는 데는 큰 어려움을 느끼게 되죠.”

최 교수는 “영어를 익히기에 앞서 의사소통지수를 높여야 한다”고 조언한다. 의사소통지수(CQ)란 내가 하고 싶은 말을 할 수 있고, 상대방의 말을 알아들을 수 있는 것, 상대방의 눈높이에 맞춰 내 의견을 전달하는 능력을 말한다. 다시 말해 CQ는 이해력과 표현력을 아우른 ‘통(通)’의 개념이라고 할 수 있다.

엄마가 아이와 꾸준히 대화하면서 CQ 높여줘야

최정화 교수는 아이들에게 영어를 가르칠 때는 ‘영어 배우기’가 아닌 ‘영어로 소통하기’에 교육의 초점을 맞춰야 한다고 말한다. 아무리 영어로 말을 잘하는 아이라도 자신이 처한 상황을 설명하지 못하거나 다른 사람의 의견을 이해하지 못한다면 영어권 사람들에게 환영받지 못하기 때문.

CQ를 높이기 위해서는 자신이 전달하고자 하는 메시지를 우선 한글로 준비한 다음 상대방의 눈높이에 맞춰 효과적인 어조로 자신의 메시지를 전달하는 연습을 해야 한다. 이런 연습은 어렸을 때부터 시작하는 게 좋다. 이때 엄마의 역할은 아이와 대화를 많이 하는 것.

“동화책을 읽거나 비디오를 본 다음에 아이에게 ‘어땠어?’라고 질문을 던져보세요. 대부분 아이들이 ‘재밌었어’라고만 대답할 거예요. 그러면 아이가 좀 더 생각해볼 수 있도록 ‘어떤 내용이었는데?’ ‘누구랑 누가 싸운 건데?’ ‘어떻게 다퉜는데?’ 등 여러 질문을 던져보세요. 그 다음에는 아이가 각 질문에 대해 대답한 말을 처음부터 끝까지 연결해서 말해보도록 하세요. 누가, 언제, 어디서, 무엇을, 어떻게, 왜 했는지 이야기하도록 한 다음 그걸 아이 스스로 연결시키도록 하는 거죠. 이런 연습을 반복해서 하다 보면 처음에는 짧게 대답했던 아이들도 점차 자기 생각을 길게 설명할 수 있게 되거든요.”

최 교수는 그 다음에는 엄마가 아이의 어색한 표현을 고쳐주고, 아이가 이야기를 하는 중간에 ‘왜?’ ‘어떻게?’라는 질문을 던져 아이 스스로 논리를 찾아가도록 해야 한다고 조언한다. 엄마가 아이와 많은 대화를 나누며 아이의 잘한 점, 좋은 점은 칭찬하고 잘못된 표현법은 고쳐주면 자연스럽게 아이의 CQ는 올라가게 된다고 한다.

또한 최 교수는 초등학교 고학년의 경우 TV나 라디오 방송을 듣고 그 내용을 요약해 써본다든가, 특정 주제에 대해 이야기하는 자신의 목소리를 녹음해 들어보면서 잘못된 점을 스스로 찾는 방법을 추천한다. 일기를 쓰는 것 또한 좋은 방법. 아이가 단순히 ‘좋았다’ ‘싫었다’ 정도로만 일기를 간략하게 쓴다면 앞서 이야기한 방법대로 엄마가 아이와의 대화를 통해 일기를 좀 더 길게 쓰도록 유도한다.

“21세기는 표현 능력이 월등한 사람이 성공하는 시대가 될 거예요. 학자로서 지식이 풍부하더라도 강의를 잘 하지 못한다면 학생들에게 그 지식을 전달할 수 없잖아요. CQ가 높은 사람이란 청중의 수준에 맞춰 전달하고자 하는 내용을 표현하는 능력을 갖춘 사람을 말하는 겁니다.”

이런 의미에서 최정화 교수는 서울대 황우석 교수를 ‘CQ가 뛰어난 사람’이라고 평한다. 황 교수는 연구 업적이 탁월하기도 하지만 국민들의 눈높이를 고려해 자신의 연구성과를 전달하는 능력 또한 매우 뛰어나다는 것. 최 교수는 “황 교수의 뛰어난 표현 능력 덕분에 그의 연구가 더욱 빛을 발하는 것 같다”고 말했다.

10∼12세 이후에는 문법 공부해 영어의 기본을 다져야

▲21세기에는 황우석 교수처럼 표현력이 월등한 사람이 성공하는 시대가 될 것이라고 말하는 최정화 교수.

요즘 영어를 쉽고 재미있게 배우기 위해 팝송을 듣거나 영화를 보면서 영어를 배우는 방법이 인기다. 하지만 최정화 교수는 같은 영어학습 방법이라고 하더라도 시기에 따라 그 효과가 다르다고 말한다. 그는 10∼12세 이전에는 재밌는 놀이를 통해 영어를 배우고 그 이후 영어문법을 익히기 시작하는 것이 좋다고 조언한다.

“10∼12세 이전의 아이들은 모국어 체계를 익히지 못했기 때문에 아이들이 모국어를 배울 때처럼 영어를 많이 들려주고 흥미를 유발시키며 재미있게 가르치는 것이 좋아요. 하지만 모국어 체계를 완전히 습득하고 나면 모국어와 다른 영어의 조립구조를 배워야 합니다. 영어의 조립구조를 알고 나면 좀 더 쉽게 영어를 배울 수 있어요.”

최 교수는 모국어 실력을 높여야 한다고 강조한다. 한국어를 잘하는 사람이 영어도 잘 하기 때문이다. “한국어 실력이 70점인 사람은 영어를 아무리 열심히 해도 60점에 그치고 만다”는 게 최 교수의 지론이다. 한국어 실력을 기본으로 삼아 영어를 이해하고 표현할 때 CQ 또한 그만큼 올라간다고.

“지난 29년 동안 통역이라는 외길을 즐겁게 걸을 수 있었던 것은 커뮤니케이션이 재미있었기 때문이에요. 모든 일은 재미있어야 잘하게 되는 법이잖아요. 아이에게 영어를 가르치기 전에 엄마 또한 영어에 재미를 느꼈으면 해요. 엄마도 아이도 모두 영어에 재미를 느낄 때 그 효과가 더욱 커질 테니까요.”


Source : http://blog.daum.net/kokowedding/5590091

출처: http://edu.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2011/10/17/2011101701560.html
 
[신진상의 고등 공부 이야기] 외국어 영역 스타 강사 김찬휘의 영어 공부법(1)
조선일보 | 맛있는교육

2011.10.17 16:09

 
최근 외국어 영역 교재 중에서 EBS 교재를 제외하면 가장 많이 팔리는 책은 바로 변형독해 책입니다. 티치미 대표이며 사교육 1번지 대치동에서 제일 유명한 영어 강사인 김찬휘 강사가 집필한 책입니다. 정식 제목은 ‘적중 김찬휘의 EBS 변형 독해’ 시리즈로 현재까지 3탄이 나와 있습니다.

외국어 영역 스타 강사 중에서 드물게 서울대 출신인 그는 서울대 1년 선배인 수리영역 한석원 강사와 함께 90년대 후반 ‘깊은 생각’이라는 보습학원을 대치동에 설립, 수리 영역과 외국어 영역에서 대치동 최상위권 학생들을 싹쓸이하다시피 했던 인물입니다.

2004년 초 메가스터디에 대한 대항마로 티치미(www.teachme.co.kr)를 설립한 후에 그의 독특한 강의법과 내실 있는 콘텐츠는 전국의 학생들에게 퍼졌습니다. 김 강사는 메가스터디 김기훈 강사와 함께 대중적 인지도와 실력 면에서 최고라는 평가를 받고 있습니다.
 
그가 지금까지 지도한 최상위권 학생 수만 5만여 명. 2004년 온라인 교육 사이트 티치미를 설립했고 5년 동안 누적 수강생은 75만여 명에 이릅니다.

이중에서 오소독스 문법 강의는 연 인원 10만 명 이상이 듣는 국내 최고 인기 온라인 강좌 중의 하나입니다. 그로부터 영어 공부에 왕도가 있는지 들어 보았습니다. 분량이 무척 많아 4회 정도 연재를 할 예정입니다. 

 Q : 단도직입적으로 묻겠습니다. 영어 공부에 왕도가 있다고 생각하시는지요, 있다면 무엇이라고 생각하시는지요?
A : 하하! 급하시군요. 분명 있습니다. 영어 공부뿐만 아니고 모든 학습의 왕도는 ‘즐거움’이라고 봅니다. 재밌어서 하는 것이 아니고, 엄마가 시키니까 억지로 하는 것이거나, 영어를 잘 해야 나중에 출세할 수 있다니까 그저 공부하고 있다면 절대 영어가 늘 수 없습니다. 영어가 부담이 되거나 수단으로 여겨진다면 절대 영어를 잘 할 수 없습니다.

자녀에게 영어 학습을 시킬 때, 자녀가 그것에 흥미를 가지고 임하는지 반드시 체크하세요. 자녀가 영어 학습을 지겨워하거나 따분해 한다면, 지나친 조기교육 탓일 수도 있고 잘못된 교육 프로그램 탓일 수도 있습니다. 이유가 무엇이든지간에 지금 하고 있는 학습은 당장 중단되어야 합니다. 그것은 안 하는 것보다 훨씬 나쁜 것입니다.  
 
Q : 그래도 영어도 공부인데 안 하는 것보다는 하는 게 낫지요. 제가 볼 때 즐거움 못지않게 중요한 것이 기본을 아는 일이라고 생각합니다. 바로 영어는 언어라는 것이지요. 영어와 국어는 언어인데 그런 면에서 영어 공부는 국어 공부와도 상관이 있지 않을까요?
A : 맞습니다. 영어를 잘하기 위해서 절대 잊지 말아야 할 한 가지 명제가 있습니다. 진부할 수도 있겠지만, 그것은 “영어는 언어”, 즉 우리말과 똑같은 언어라는 사실입니다. 아이가 우리말을 배우는 과정을 떠올려 보세요. 먼저 엄마와 아빠의 말을 열심히 듣습니다. Listening 과정이 수없이 반복되고 나서, 서투르게 한 글자씩 말하기 시작합니다.

처음에는 외마디 소리에 불과했으나 엄청난 시행착오를 거쳐서 한 음절, 한 단어, 결국 한 문장까지 말할 수 있게 됩니다. 듣기와 말하기가 계속 발전하는 것과 동시에 책을 읽게 됩니다. 더 나아가 생각한 바를 글로 옮기게 되죠. 이 시점 이후에는 점점 읽기와 쓰기의 수준과 양을 늘려 나가야 합니다.

읽기와 쓰기 수준이 높아져야 이제는 말하는 수준도 높아지는 단계에 돌입하게 되는 거죠. 영어를 잘 하기 위해서는, 이와 같은 언어의 일반적 발전과정을 잊지 말아야 합니다. 국어 공부와 영어 공부는 똑같은 발전 단계를 밟으며 진행되어야 합니다.
 
Q : 말이 쉽지, 영어 잘 하는 게 어렵지 않습니까? 가장 많은 돈과 시간을 투자하고도 우리나라 사람들이 영어를 못 하는 이유는 무엇 때문이라고 생각하시는지요?
A : 아까 말씀드렸던 언어의 일반적 본질을 도외시하기 때문입니다. 이상하게도 영어에 관한한 이런 상식이 붕괴하게 됩니다. 영어 학습의 부진에 초조해 하는 대중을 현혹시키는 학습 “비법”이 등장하게 됩니다. 이 한 가지 비법만 잘 연마하면 영어를 단 시일 내에 비약적으로 발전시킬 수 있는 것처럼 주장하고 또 믿습니다.

영어가 구미 당기는 현란한 상품이 되어 소비자를 유혹하는 것입니다. 영어 학습의 한 영역 혹은 방법론을 기형적으로 과장하는 이런 주장들이야말로 영어의 균형적 발전을 파괴하는 주범이라 아니할 수 없습니다.

공부하는 사람들의 분절적인 사고방식 또한 문제입니다. 듣기가 안 되면 “귀가 뚫려야 된다”고 하면서 줄곧 이어폰을 끼고 있습니다. 독해가 안 되면 “단어가 약해서” 그런 것이라고 생각해 버립니다. 하지만 단어가 약해서 듣기가 안 되고, 문법이 약해서 독해가 안 되는 경우가 비일비재합니다.

TOEIC을 공부한다고 토익 책만 보고 있거나 TEPS를 공부한다고 텝스 책만 보고 있는 현상도, 그러한 분절적인 사고방식의 전형적인 사례입니다. 중요한 것은 언어 학습의 “균형”을 잃지 않는 것입니다.

 
Q : 균형 이야기가 나와서 말인데 분명 외국어 교육의 목표는 듣기, 말하기, 쓰기, 읽기 능력을 골고루 향상시키는 것으로 말은 합니다. 기존 국내 영어 교육은 듣기와 읽기에만 초점이 맞추어져 있는 것 아닐까요? 이상적인 영어 교육은 어떤 형태가 되어야 한다고 생각하시는지요. 
A : 이미 말씀드린 대로, 네 가지 요소의 균형을 중시하면서, 나이와 언어 발전 단계에 따라 네 가지 요소의 상대적 비중을 조절한 영어 교육이 이루어져야 합니다. 영어 교육의 초기에는 놀이를 한다거나, chant와 song을 듣고 따라하는 방식으로 흥미를 유발하는 과정이 일반적으로 선행합니다.

하지만 놀이 교육에 머물러 있는 기간이 길다면, 학습 발전이 정체되어 있는 것이거나 지나치게 일찍 영어 교육을 시작한 것이라고 볼 수 있습니다. 놀이 학습은, 원어민 등의 영어 교습자와 아동간의 conversation 전개의 계기로서 의미가 있는 것이겠습니다.

영어를 듣고 말할 기회를 꾸준히 증가해 주면서 적절한 시기에 phonics 학습이 병행되어야 하며, 또한 reading의 수준도 꾸준히 높여주면서 테이프나 비디오 매체를 병행해야 합니다. 초기 단계를 벗어나면 어법 학습을 병행하는 것이 매우 중요합니다.

어법은 writing 학습에 절대적인 의미를 가지기 때문이죠. 초등학교 고학년이나 중학생으로서 접어드는 시점에서는, 원어민과의 대화 기회를 꾸준히 보장해 주면서 reading의 수준을 높이는 것이 매우 중요합니다. 모국어와 마찬가지로, 독서를 많이 한 사람의 대화 수준과 토론 수준이 높아지는 것은 너무나 당연하다고 보아야 할 것입니다.

즉 청소년기에는 읽기의 발전이 듣기, 말하기, 쓰기 요소 모두를 이끌고 가는 견인차 역할을 해야 합니다. 이런 과정을 거쳐야 고등학교와 대학교 과정에 이르러 진정한 의미의 ‘몰입교육’이 가능할 것이라 생각합니다.

단순한 의사소통 표현을 가지고 소위 ‘회화’를 잘 하는 것은 절대 영어를 잘 하는 것이 아닙니다. 발음이 좋다고 한들, 그 발음으로 토해내는 언어 속에 들을만한 “내용”이 없다면, 그것은 쓰레기(trash)에 불과한 것입니다. 반기문 UN 사무총장의 영어 발음은 원어민의 발음과는 전혀 다릅니다. 중요한 것은 내용입니다.  

Q : 내용이 중요하다는 말씀 동감합니다. 내용 못지않게 중요한 게 있다면 정서 아닐까요? 영어를 잘 하기 위해 필요한 동기 부여, 정서와 관련된 조언을 해주신다면 어떤 게 있을까요?
A : 영어에 너무 특권적인 지위를 부여하면 안 됩니다. 영어는 제법 중요한 의사소통 수단에 불과하다는 정신 자세가 중요합니다. 모국어를 할 때 동족과의 즐거운 의사소통이 되는 것처럼, 영어를 잘 하면 세계의 더 많은 사람과 즐거운 의사소통을 할 수 있지 않겠는가....뭐 이런 정서가 필요합니다.

과거에 영어 펜팔을 하면서 영어에 대한 흥미를 높이고 영어 실력도 높였듯이, 다양한 사이트와 게시판에 영어로 포스트(post)를 남기고 영어로 이메일을 주고 받으면서 그러한 의사소통의 즐거움을 만끽해야 합니다. 

영어를 못하면 마치 인생을 망칠 수도 있는 것처럼 자녀를 윽박질러서도 안 됩니다. 일단 그것은 사실이 아니며, 그런 정신 상태로 학습한 것이 좋은 결과를 가져올 리도 없습니다. 자녀를 불안한 처지로 몰아넣고 협박하면 안 됩니다. 그런 불안한 심리는 실제로는 부모 자신에게서 유래한 것인데요, 학습을 강요함으로써 부모는 자신의 그런 불안함을 자녀에게 이입(移入)하게 되는 셈입니다.

설사 강요를 통해서 영어를 잘하게 되었다 하더라도, 그 과정에서 중요한 다른 인격적 요소를 희생시켰을 것임이 분명합니다. 그리고 인생의 성공에는, 그렇게 희생된 다른 많은 요소들이 더 결정적인 것임을 잊지 마세요.

※다음편에 계속됩니다.

출처: http://edu.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2011/10/24/2011102401911.html

[신진상의 고등 공부 이야기] 외국어 영역 스타 강사 김찬휘의 영어 공부법(2)
조선일보 | 맛있는교육

2011.10.24 17:04

 
최근 외국어 영역 교재 중에서 EBS 교재를 제외하면 가장 많이 팔리는 책은 바로 변형독해 책입니다. 티치미 대표이며 사교육 1번지 대치동에서 제일 유명한 영어 강사인 김찬휘 강사가 집필한 책입니다. 정식 제목은 ‘적중 김찬휘의 EBS 변형 독해’ 시리즈로 현재까지 3탄이 나와 있습니다.

외국어 영역 스타 강사 중에서 드물게 서울대 출신인 그는 서울대 1년 선배인 수리영역 한석원 강사와 함께 90년대 후반 ‘깊은 생각’이라는 보습학원을 대치동에 설립, 수리 영역과 외국어 영역에서 대치동 최상위권 학생들을 싹쓸이하다시피 했던 인물입니다.

2004년 초 메가스터디에 대한 대항마로 티치미(www.teachme.co.kr)를 설립한 후에 그의 독특한 강의법과 내실 있는 콘텐츠는 전국의 학생들에게 퍼졌습니다. 김 강사는 메가스터디 김기훈 강사와 함께 대중적 인지도와 실력 면에서 최고라는 평가를 받고 있습니다.
 
그가 지금까지 지도한 최상위권 학생 수만 5만여 명. 2004년 온라인 교육 사이트 티치미를 설립했고 5년 동안 누적 수강생은 75만여 명에 이릅니다.

이중에서 오소독스 문법 강의는 연 인원 10만 명 이상이 듣는 국내 최고 인기 온라인 강좌 중의 하나입니다. 그로부터 영어 공부에 왕도가 있는지 들어 보았습니다.

 
Q : 영어 공부는 습관이기도 한데 생활 습관과 어느 정도 관련이 있을까요, 있다면 어떤 식으로 습관을 형성하는 게 좋을까요?
A : 습관이란 의식하지 않은 상태에서 자연스럽게 이루어지는 것을 말합니다. 습관적인 것은 그것이 당연하다는 생각조차 들지 않는 최적의 편안한 상태일 것입니다. 우리나라는 영어가 모국어이거나 공용어인 환경이 아니므로, 이런 습관적 상황을 만들 수는 없습니다.

즉, 영어 학습은 어차피 의식적인 계획과 노력의 산물일 수밖에 없다는 말씀입니다. 그것을 습관이라고 말할 수 있다면, 목적의식적으로 배양된 것일 겁니다.

영어 학습의 습관을 의식적으로 배양하려면, 비유하건데 gym(헬스클럽)에서 운동하는 것과 유사한 환경을 조성해야 합니다. 즉 정해진 시간에 꼭 운동을 하듯이, 정해진 시간에 꼭 어떤 영어 학습을 하도록 규칙으로 정해 놓아야 합니다. 헬스클럽을 이 핑계 저 핑계를 대면서 한 번 두 번 빠지기 시작하면 절대 계속 다닐 수 없습니다.

영어 학습도 이와 똑같습니다. 정해진 학습 규칙을 꼭 지키는 것이 가장 중요합니다. 예컨대 아침마다 라디오의 어떤 영어 방송을 듣기로 작정했다면 무슨 일이 있어도 그것은 들어야 하는 것입니다. 저녁에 원어민 회화 학원이 있다면 부모님이 돌아가시지 않은 이상 빠지면 안 됩니다. 이렇듯 학습 습관이란 강한 집념과 철저함이 없이는 불가능합니다.

헬스클럽을 계속 다니다 보면 별 생각 없이 늘 가게 되고, 종국에는 안 가면 몸이 더 이상을 느끼게 되는 것처럼, 영어 학습도 그런 수준에 도달했다면 비로소 습관화되었다고 말할 수 있을 것입니다. 하지만 이때 명심해야 될 점이 있습니다.

억지로는 할 수 없다는 것입니다. 몸이 안 따라 주는데 억지로 역기를 들다 보면 분명히 다칩니다. 즐겁게 treadmill(러닝머신)을 밟을 수 있을 때 헬스클럽 가는 것이 습관이 됩니다. 즐거운 일만이 습관이 될 수 있습니다. 

Q : 화제를 바꿔서 영어가 아니라 영어 잘 하는 사람들 이야기를 해보지요. 영어를 잘 하는 학생들에게는 어떤 공통점이 있을까요?
A : 첫째로는 호기심이 왕성하죠. 언어 학습에 있어서도 주어진 것만을 수용하는 것이 아니라, 배운 것을 기초로 새로운 내용을 확대하고 덧붙여 나가는 재능이 뛰어납니다.입법부(legislature)라는 단어를 배웠을 때 보통의 학생은 그냥 그 단어를 외우고 맙니다.

하지만 학습 의욕이 높은 소수의 학생은 행정부(executive)와 사법부(judiciary)는 영어로 어떻게 되는지 호기심을 보입니다. 학습 확대의 의욕이야말로 영어를 잘 하는 학생의 가장 큰 특징이죠.

둘째, 근면합니다. 아까 습관에 대해서 말씀드렸는데요, 영어를 잘 하려면 습관을 만들어야 되고, 영어 공부의 습관을 만들었다면 그만큼 근면함이 남다르다고 볼 수 있습니다. 매일 혹은 매주 일정한 양의 학습을 꾸준히 되풀이할 수 있는 근면함은, 그러한 인성을 키워오지 않았다면 불가능합니다.

셋째, 집안 환경이 공부에 적합한 환경을 가지고 있습니다. 여가시간이면 아버지가 TV를 켜 놓고 스포츠 경기를 보거나, 어머니는 허구한 날 드라마에 빠져 있는 집안에서 공부 열심히 하는 자녀가 나오는 경우는 극히 드물죠. 영어에 Example is better than precept.라는 말이 있습니다. 모범이 훈계보다 훌륭하다는 얘기인데요, 부모가 공부하는 집안에서 공부하는 자녀가 나오는 법입니다.   
 
Q : 영어 잘 하는 사람들은 집안의 경제력이 필요한 것이 현실 아닐까요? 영어는 환경이 무엇보다도 중요하다고 합니다. 사교육의 세례를 받지 않고 영어를 잘 할 수 있는 방법은 정녕 없는 건가요?
A : 이런 질문에 대한 ‘모범 답안’은 “할 수 있다”는 것이어야겠죠. 하지만 공교육의 영어 학습 현실이 획기적으로 개선되지 않은 상황에서, 기존 공교육 체제에서 혼자만의 노력을 통해서 유창한 영어 실력을 갖출 수 있다고 말하는 것은 매우 공허한 얘기라고 보아야 합니다. 물론 사교육을 받는다고 다 영어를 잘 하게 된다는 말은 아닙니다.

사교육을 처음부터 끝까지 계속 받아야 된다는 말도 아닙니다. 다만 적절한 시기에 적절한 형태의 사교육이 공부의 방향을 설정해 주고 필요한 자극을 줄 때, 자기주도형 학습도 더 완벽해질 수 있다는 것입니다. 

※다음편에 계속됩니다.

영작문 고급과정에 있는 분이라면 꼭 한 번 읽어볼 만한 E-book입니다. 우리가 영문법에서 전형적으로 다루는 내용들도 많이 나옵니다. 역시 영문법은 영작문과 불가분의 관계에 있군요.  *참고로 이책은 지은이 사후 50년이 지나 저작권이 소멸된 책입니다.
---------------------------------------------------------------

How to Write Clearly.

RULES AND EXERCISES

ON

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

BY THE

REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,

HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL.

THE AUTHOR'S COPYRIGHT EDITION.

BOSTON:
ROBERTS BROTHERS.
1883.

University Press: John Wilson & Son.
Cambridge.

PREFACE.

Almost every English boy can be taught to write clearly, so far at least as clearness depends upon the arrangement of words. Force, elegance, and variety of style are more difficult to teach, and far more difficult to learn; but clear writing can be reduced to rules. To teach the art of writing clearly is the main object of these Rules and Exercises.

Ambiguity may arise, not only from bad arrangement, but also from other causes—from the misuse of single words, and from confused thought. These causes are not removable by definite rules, and therefore, though not neglected, are not prominently considered in this book. My object rather is to point out some few continually recurring causes of ambiguity, and to suggest definite remedies in each case. Speeches in Parliament, newspaper narratives and articles, and, above all, resolutions at public meetings, furnish abundant instances of obscurity arising from the monotonous neglect of some dozen simple rules.

The art of writing forcibly is, of course, a valuable acquisition—almost as valuable as the art of writing clearly. But forcible expression is not, like clear expression, a mere question of mechanism and of the manipulation of words; it is a much higher power, and implies much more.

[Pg 6]

Writing clearly does not imply thinking clearly. A man may think and reason as obscurely as Dogberry himself, but he may (though it is not probable that he will) be able to write clearly for all that. Writing clearly—so far as arrangement of words is concerned—is a mere matter of adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs, placed and repeated according to definite rules.[1] Even obscure or illogical thought can be clearly expressed; indeed, the transparent medium of clear writing is not least beneficial when it reveals the illogical nature of the meaning beneath it.

On the other hand, if a man is to write forcibly, he must (to use a well-known illustration) describe Jerusalem as "sown with salt," not as "captured," and the Jews not as being "subdued" but as "almost exterminated" by Titus. But what does this imply? It implies knowledge, and very often a great deal of knowledge, and it implies also a vivid imagination. The writer must have eyes to see the vivid side of everything, as well as words to describe what he sees. Hence forcible writing, and of course tasteful writing also, is far less a matter of rules than is clear writing; and hence, though forcible writing is exemplified in the exercises, clear writing occupies most of the space devoted to the rules.

Boys who are studying Latin and Greek stand in especial need of help to enable them to write a long English sentence clearly. The periods of Thucydides and Cicero are not easily rendered into our idiom without some knowledge of the links that connect an English sentence.

There is scarcely any better training, rhetorical as well as logical, than the task of construing Thucydides into [Pg 7]genuine English; but the flat, vague, long-winded Greek-English and Latin-English imposture that is often tolerated in our examinations and is allowed to pass current for genuine English, diminishes instead of increasing the power that our pupils should possess over their native language. By getting marks at school and college for construing good Greek and Latin into bad English, our pupils systematically unlearn what they may have been allowed to pick up from Milton and from Shakespeare.

I must acknowledge very large obligations to Professor Bain's treatise on "English Composition and Rhetoric," and also to his English Grammar. I have not always been able to agree with Professor Bain as to matters of taste; but I find it difficult to express my admiration for the systematic thoroughness and suggestiveness of his book on Composition. In particular, Professor Bain's rule on the use of "that" and "which" (see Rule 8) deserves to be better known.[2] The ambiguity produced by the confusion between these two forms of the Relative is not a mere fiction of pedants; it is practically serious. Take, for instance, the following sentence, which appeared lately in one of our ablest weekly periodicals: "There are a good many Radical members in the House who cannot forgive the Prime Minister for being a Christian." Twenty years hence, who is to say whether the meaning is "and they, i.e. all the Radical members in the House," or "there are a good many Radical members of the House that cannot &c."? Professor Bain, apparently admitting no exceptions to his useful rule, amends many sentences in a manner that seems to me intolerably harsh. Therefore, while laying due stress on the utility of the rule, I have endeavoured to point out and explain the exceptions.

[Pg 8]

The rules are stated as briefly as possible, and are intended not so much for use by themselves as for reference while the pupil is working at the exercises. Consequently, there is no attempt to prove the rules by accumulations of examples. The few examples that are given, are given not to prove, but to illustrate the rules. The exercises are intended to be written out and revised, as exercises usually are; but they may also be used for vivâ voce instruction. The books being shut, the pupils, with their written exercises before them, may be questioned as to the reasons for the several alterations they have made. Experienced teachers will not require any explanation of the arrangement or rather non-arrangement of the exercises. They have been purposely mixed together unclassified to prevent the pupil from relying upon anything but his own common sense and industry, to show him what is the fault in each case, and how it is to be amended. Besides references to the rules, notes are attached to each sentence, so that the exercises ought not to present any difficulty to a painstaking boy of twelve or thirteen, provided he has first been fairly trained in English grammar.

The "Continuous Extracts" present rather more difficulty, and are intended for boys somewhat older than those for whom the Exercises are intended. The attempt to modernize, and clarify, so to speak, the style of Burnet, Clarendon, and Bishop Butler,[3] may appear ambitious, and perhaps requires some explanation. My object has, of course, not been to improve upon the style of these authors, but to show how their meaning might be expressed more clearly in modern English. The charm of the style is necessarily lost, but if the loss is recognized both by teacher and pupil, there is nothing, in my opinion, to [Pg 9]counterbalance the obvious utility of such exercises. Professor Bain speaks to the same effect:[4] "For an English exercise, the matter should in some way or other be supplied, and the pupil disciplined in giving it expression. I know of no better method than to prescribe passages containing good matter, but in some respects imperfectly worded, to be amended according to the laws and the proprieties of style. Our older writers might be extensively, though not exclusively, drawn upon for this purpose."

To some of the friends whose help has been already acknowledged in "English Lessons for English People," I am indebted for further help in revising these pages. I desire to express especial obligations to the Rev. J. H. Lupton, late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, and Second Master of St. Paul's School, for copious and valuable suggestions; also to several of my colleagues at the City of London School, among whom I must mention in particular the Rev. A. R. Vardy, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

Before electrotyping the Fourth and Revised Edition, I wish to say one word as to the manner in which this book has been used by my highest class, as a collection of Rules for reference in their construing lessons. In construing, from Thucydides especially, I have found Rules 5, 30, 34, 36, 37, and 40a, of great use. The rules about Metaphor and Climax have also been useful in correcting faults of taste in their Latin and Greek compositions. I have hopes that, used in this way, this little book may be of service to the highest as well as to the middle classes of our schools.

[Pg 10]

CONTENTS.

[Pg 11]

INDEX OF RULES.

I. CLEARNESS AND FORCE.

WORDS.

1. Use words in their proper sense.

2. Avoid exaggerations.

3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."

4. Be careful in the use of "not ... and," "any," "but," "only," "not ... or," "that."

4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. "certain."

5. Be careful in the use of "he," "it," "they," "these," &c.

6. Report a speech in the First Person, where necessary to avoid ambiguity.

6 a. Use the Third Person where the exact words of the speaker are not intended to be given.

6 b. Omission of "that" in a speech in the Third Person.

7. When you use a Participle implying "when," "while," "though," or "that," show clearly by the context what is implied.

8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" or "which," if the meaning is "and he" or "and it," "for he" or "for it." In other cases use "that," if euphony allows. Exceptions.

9. Do not use "and which" for "which."

10. Equivalents for the Relative: (a) Participle or Adjective; (b) Infinitive; (c) "Whereby," "whereto," &c.; (d) "If a man;" (e) "And he," "and this," &c.; (f) "what;" (g) omission of Relative.

10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent before the Relative, where the non-repetition causes any ambiguity. See 38.

11. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract Nouns.

11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used.

12. Use particular persons instead of a class.

13. Use metaphor instead of literal statement.

14. Do not confuse metaphor.

14 a. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement.

14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.

ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.

15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i.e., for the most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence.

15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end. Exceptions.

[Pg 12] 15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.

16. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred from the beginning of the sentence.

17. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb for emphasis.

18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an intensifying word.

19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected.

20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to qualify.

21. "Only"; the strict rule is that "only" should be placed before the word it affects.

22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by the same part of speech.

23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes produce ambiguity.

24. Nouns should be placed near the Nouns that they define.

25. Pronouns should follow the Nouns to which they refer, without the intervention of any other Noun.

26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible. Avoid parentheses. But see 55.

27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.

28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from those that are independent.

29. Where there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.

30. The principle of Suspense.

30 a. It is a violation of the principle of suspense to introduce unexpectedly at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (a) "not," (b) "which."

31. Suspense must not be excessive.

32. In a sentence with "if," "when," "though," &c., put the "if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.

33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective, that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.

34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one hand," &c., add clearness.

35. Repeat the Subject, where its omission would cause obscurity or ambiguity.

36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene.

37. Repeat Conjunctions, Auxiliary Verbs, and Pronominal Adjectives.

37 a. Repeat Verbs after the Conjunctions "than," "as," &c.

[Pg 13]

38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken.

39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentence prepares the way for the middle, and the middle for the end, the whole forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."

40. When the thought is expected to ascend, but descends, feebleness, and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called "bathos."

40 a. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly.

41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness.

42. Epigram.

43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences.

44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of the sentence.

45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of thought.

II. BREVITY.

46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.

47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular terms.

47 a. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word.

48. Participles may often be used as brief (though sometimes ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.

49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns may be used as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.

50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being expressed at length.

51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, e.g. "very," "so." Exaggerated epithets, e.g. "incalculable," "unprecedented."

51 a. The imperative may be used for "if &c."

52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences into one.

53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common Subject of several Verbs; (2) the common Object of several Verbs or Prepositions.

54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied.

55. Parenthesis maybe used with advantage to brevity. See 26.

56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the first consideration.

[Pg 14]

CLEARNESS AND FORCE.

Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules.

WORDS.

1. Use words in their proper sense.

Write, not "His apparent guilt justified his friends in disowning him," but "his evident guilt." "Conscious" and "aware," "unnatural" and "supernatural," "transpire" and "occur," "circumstance" and "event," "reverse" and "converse," "eliminate" and "elicit," are often confused together.

This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses. "It is in my power to refuse your request, and since I have power to do this, I may lawfully do it." Here the second "power" is used for "authority."

This rule also forbids the slovenly use of "nice," "awfully," "delicious," "glorious," &c. See (2).

2. Avoid exaggerations.

"The boundless plains in the heart of the empire furnished inexhaustible supplies of corn, that would have almost sufficed for twice the population."

Here "inexhaustible" is inconsistent with what follows. The words "unprecedented," "incalculable," "very," and "stupendous" are often used in the same loose way.

3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."

"Her Majesty here partook of lunch." Write "lunched."

"Partook of" implies sharing, and is incorrect as well as lengthy.

So, do not use "apex" for "top," "species" for "kind," "individual" for "man," "assist" for "help," &c.

4. Be careful how you use the following words: "not ... and," "any," "only," "not ... or," "that."[5]

[Pg 15]

And. See below, "Or."

Any.—"I am not bound to receive any messenger that you send." Does this mean every, or a single? Use "every" or "a single."

Not.—(1) "I do not intend to help you, because you are my enemy &c." ought to mean (2), "I intend not to help you, and my reason for not helping you is, because you are my enemy." But it is often wrongly used to mean (3), "I intend to help you, not because you are my enemy (but because you are poor, blind, &c.)." In the latter case, not ought to be separated from intend. By distinctly marking the limits to which the influence of not extends, the ambiguity may be removed.

Only is often used ambiguously for alone. "The rest help me to revenge myself; you only advise me to wait." This ought to mean, "you only advise, instead of helping;" but in similar sentences "you only" is often used for "you alone." But see 21.

Or.—When "or" is preceded by a negative, as "I do not want butter or honey," "or" ought not, strictly speaking, to be used like "and," nor like "nor." The strict use of "not ... or" would be as follows:—

"You say you don't want both butter and honey—you want butter or honey; I, on the contrary, do not want butter or honey—I want them both."

Practically, however, this meaning is so rare, that "I don't want butter or honey" is regularly used for "I want neither butter nor honey." But where there is the slightest danger of ambiguity, it is desirable to use nor.

The same ambiguity attends "not ... and." "I do not see Thomas and John" is commonly used for "I see neither Thomas nor John;" but it might mean, "I do not see them both—I see only one of them."

That.—The different uses of "that" produce much ambiguity, e.g. "I am so much surprised by this statement that I am desirous of resigning, that I scarcely know what reply to make." Here it is impossible to tell, till one has read past "resigning," whether the first "that" depends upon "so" or "statement." Write: "The statement that I am desirous of resigning surprises me so much that I scarcely know &c."

5. Be careful how you use "he," "it," "they," "these," &c. (For "which" see 8.) The ambiguity arising from the use of he applying to different persons is well known.

"He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an hour he thought he had better return." See (6) for remedy.

Much ambiguity is also caused by excessive use of such phrases as in this way, of this sort, &c.

"God, foreseeing the disorders of human nature, has given us certain passions and affections which arise from, or whose objects are, these disorders. Of this sort are fear, resentment, compassion."

Repeat the noun: "Among these passions and affections are fear &c."

Two distinct uses of it may be noted. It, when referring to something that precedes, may be called "retrospective;" but when to something that follows, "prospective." In "Avoid indiscriminate charity: it is a crime," "it" is retrospective.[6] In "It is a crime to give indiscriminately," "it" is prospective.

The prospective "it," if productive of ambiguity, can often be omitted by using the infinitive as a subject: "To give indiscriminately is a crime."

6. Report a speech in the First, not the Third Person, where necessary to avoid ambiguity. Speeches in the third person afford a particular, though very common case, of the general ambiguity mentioned in (5). Instead of "He told his friend that if he did not feel better &c.," write "He said to his friend, 'If, I (or you) don't feel better &c.'"

7. When you use a Participle, as "walking," implying "when," "while," "though," "that," make it clear by the context what is implied.

"Republics, in the first instance, are never desired for their own sakes. I do not think they will finally be desired at all, unaccompanied by courtly graces and good breeding."

Here there is a little doubt whether the meaning is "since they are, or, if they are, unaccompanied."

That or when.—"Men walking (that walk, or when they walk) on ice sometimes fall."

It is better to use "men walking" to mean "men when they walk." If the relative is meant, use "men that walk," instead of the participle.

When the participle precedes the subject, it generally implies a cause: "Seeing this, he retired." Otherwise it generally has its proper participial meaning, e.g. "He retired, keeping his face towards us." If there is any ambiguity, write "on seeing,"—"at the same time, or while, keeping."

8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" and "which" where the meaning is "and he, it, &c.," "for he, it, &c." In other cases use "that," if euphony allows.

"I heard this from the inspector, who (and he) heard it from the guard that travelled with the train."

"Fetch me (all) the books that lie on the table, and also the pamphlets, which (and these) you will find on the floor."

An adherence to this rule would remove much ambiguity. Thus: "There was a public-house next door, which was a great nuisance," means "and this (i.e. the fact of its being next door) was a great nuisance;" whereas that would have meant "Next door was a public-house that (i.e. the public-house) was a great [Pg 18]nuisance." "Who," "which," &c. introduce a new fact about the antecedent, whereas "that" introduces something without which the antecedent is incomplete or undefined. Thus, in the first example above, "inspector" is complete in itself, and "who" introduces a new fact about him; "guard" is incomplete, and requires "that travelled with the train" to complete the meaning.

It is not, and cannot be, maintained that this rule, though observed in Elizabethan English, is observed by our best modern authors. (Probably a general impression that "that" cannot be used to refer to persons has assisted "who" in supplanting "that" as a relative.) But the convenience of the rule is so great that beginners in composition may with advantage adhere to the rule. The following are some of the cases where who and which are mostly used, contrary to the rule, instead of that.

Exceptions:—

9. Do not use redundant "and" before "which."[8]

"I gave him a very interesting book for a present, and which cost me five shillings."

In short sentences the absurdity is evident, but in long sentences it is less evident, and very common.

"A petition was presented for rescinding that portion of the bye-laws which permits application of public money to support [Pg 19]sectarian schools over which ratepayers have no control, this being a violation of the principle of civil and religious liberty, and which the memorialists believe would provoke a determined and conscientious resistance."

Here which ought grammatically to refer to "portion" or "schools." But it seems intended to refer to "violation." Omit "and," or repeat "a violation" before "which," or turn the sentence otherwise.

10. Equivalents for Relative.

(a) Participle.—"Men thirsting (for 'men that thirst') for revenge are not indifferent to plunder." The objection to the participle is that here, as often, it creates a little ambiguity. The above sentence may mean, "men, when they thirst," or "though they thirst," as well as "men that thirst." Often however there is no ambiguity: "I have documents proving this conclusively."

(b) Infinitive.—Instead of "He was the first that entered" you can write "to enter;" for "He is not a man who will act dishonestly," "to act." This equivalent cannot often be used.

(c) Whereby, wherein, &c., can sometimes be used for "by which," "in which," so as to avoid a harsh repetition of "which." "The means whereby this may be effected." But this use is somewhat antiquated.

(d) If.—"The man that does not care for music is to be pitied" can be written (though not so forcibly), "If a man does not care for music, he is to be pitied." It is in long sentences that this equivalent will be found most useful.

(e) And this.—"He did his best, which was all that could be expected," can be written, "and this was all that, &c."

(f) What.—"Let me repeat that which[9] you ought to know, that that which is worth doing is worth doing well." "Let me repeat, what you ought to know, that what is worth doing is worth doing well."

(g) Omission of Relative.—It is sometimes thought ungrammatical to omit the relative, as in "The man (that) you speak of." On the contrary, that when an object (not when a subject) may be omitted, wherever the antecedent and the subject of the relative sentence are brought into juxtaposition by the omission.

10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent in some new form, where there is any ambiguity. This is particularly useful [Pg 20]after a negative: "He said that he would not even hear me, which I confess I had expected." Here the meaning may be, "I had expected that he would," or "that he would not, hear me." Write, "a refusal, or, a favour, that I confess I had expected." See (38).

11. Use particular for general terms.—This is a most important rule. Instead of "I have neither the necessaries of life nor the means of procuring them," write (if you can with truth), "I have not a crust of bread, nor a penny to buy one."

In philosophy and science, where the language ought very often to be inclusive and brief, general and not particular terms must be used.

11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used instead. The disadvantage of the use of Verbal Nouns is this, that, unless they are immediately preceded by prepositions, they are sometimes liable to be confounded with participles. The following is an instance of an excessive use of Verbal Nouns:

"The pretended confession of the secretary was only collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's favouring popery, which still hung upon him, notwithstanding his writing on the Revelation, and affecting to enter on all occasions into controversy, asserting in particular that the Pope was Antichrist."

Write "notwithstanding that he wrote and affected &c."

12. Use a particular Person instead of a class.

"What is the splendour of the greatest monarch compared with the beauty of a flower?" "What is the splendour of Solomon compared with the beauty of a daisy?"

Under this head may come the forcible use of Noun for Adjective: "This fortress is weakness itself."

An excess of this use is lengthy and pedantically bombastic, e.g., the following paraphrase for "in every British colony:"—"under Indian palm-groves, amid Australian gum-trees, in the shadow of African mimosas, and beneath Canadian pines."

13. Use Metaphor instead of literal statement.

"The ship ploughs the sea" is clearer than "the ship cleaves the sea," and shorter than "the ship cleaves the sea as a plough cleaves the land."

[Pg 21]

Of course there are some subjects for which Metaphor should not be used. See (14 a) and (14 b).

14. Do not confuse Metaphor.

"In a moment the thunderbolt was upon them, deluging their country with invaders."

The following is attributed to Sir Boyle Roche: "Mr. Speaker, I smell a rat, I see him brewing in the air; but, mark me, I shall yet nip him in the bud."

14 a. Do not introduce literal statement immediately after Metaphor.

"He was the father of Chemistry, and brother to the Earl of Cork."

14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject. Thus, we may say "a poet soars," or even, though rarely, "a nation soars to greatness," but you could not say "Consols soared to 94½." Even commonplace subjects may be illustrated by metaphor: for it is a metaphor, and quite unobjectionable, to say "Consols mounted, or jumped to 94½." But commonplace subjects must be illustrated by metaphor that is commonplace.

ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.

15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i.e. for the most part, at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. This rule occasionally supersedes the common rules about position. Thus, the place for an adverb, as a rule, should be between the subject and verb: "He quickly left the room;" but if quickly is to be emphatic, it must come at the beginning or end, as in "I told him to leave the room slowly, but he left quickly."

Adjectives, in clauses beginning with "if" and "though," often come at the beginning for emphasis: "Insolent though he was, he was silenced at last."

[Pg 22]

15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end of the sentence. It is a common fault to break this rule by placing a short and unemphatic predicate at the end of a long sentence.

"To know some Latin, even if it be nothing but a few Latin roots, is useful." Write, "It is useful, &c."

So "the evidence proves how kind to his inferiors he is."

Often, where an adjective or auxiliary verb comes at the end, the addition of an emphatic adverb justifies the position, e.g. above, "is very useful," "he has invariably been."

Exceptions.—Prepositions and pronouns attached to emphatic words need not be moved from the end; e.g. "He does no harm that I hear of." "Bear witness how I loved him."

N.B. In all styles, especially in letter-writing, a final emphasis must not be so frequent as to become obtrusive and monotonous.

15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis. "No one can doubt that the prisoner, had he been really guilty, would have shown some signs of remorse," is not so emphatic as "Who can doubt, Is it possible to doubt, &c.?"

Contrast "No one ever names Wentworth without thinking of &c." with "But Wentworth,—who ever names him without thinking of those harsh dark features, ennobled by their expression into more than the majesty of an antique Jupiter?"

16. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be removed from the beginning of the sentence. The beginning of the sentence is an emphatic position, though mostly not so emphatic as the end. Therefore the principal subject of a sentence, being emphatic, and being wanted early in the sentence to tell us what the sentence is about, comes as a rule, at or near the beginning: "Thomas built this house."

Hence, since the beginning is the usual place for the subject, if we want to emphasize "Thomas" unusually, we must remove "Thomas" from the beginning: "This house was built by Thomas," or "It was Thomas that built this house."

Thus, the emphasis on "conqueror" is not quite so strong in "A mere conqueror ought not to obtain from us the reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind," as in "We ought [Pg 23]not to bestow the reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind, upon a mere conqueror." Considerable, but less emphasis and greater smoothness (19) will be obtained by writing the sentence thus: "We ought not to bestow upon a mere conqueror &c."

17. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis. This is most common in antithesis. "Jesus I know, and Paul I know; but who are ye?" "Some he imprisoned, others he put to death."

Even where there is no antithesis the inversion is not uncommon:

"Military courage, the boast of the sottish German, of the frivolous and prating Frenchman, of the romantic and arrogant Spaniard, he neither possesses nor values."

18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most emphatic. Thus, in "The state was made, under the pretence of serving it, in reality the prize of their contention to each of these opposite parties," it is unpleasantly doubtful whether the writer means (1) state or (2) parties to be emphatic.

[Pg 24]

If (1), "As for the state, these two parties, under the pretence of serving it, converted it into a prize for their contention." If (2), write, "Though served in profession, the state was in reality converted into a prize for their contention by these two parties." In (1) parties is subordinated, in (2) state.

Sometimes the addition of some intensifying word serves to emphasize. Thus, instead of "To effect this they used all devices," we can write "To effect this they used every conceivable device." So, if we want to emphasize fidelity in "The business will task your skill and fidelity," we can write "Not only your skill but also your fidelity." This, however, sometimes leads to exaggerations. See (2).

Sometimes antithesis gives emphasis, as in "You do not know this, but you shall know it." Where antithesis cannot be used, the emphasis must be expressed by turning the sentence, as "I will make you know it," or by some addition, as "You shall hereafter know it."

19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected. See Paragraphs 20 to 29. For exceptions see 30.

20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to affect. When unemphatic, adverbs come between the subject and the verb, or, if the tense is compound, between the parts of the compound tense: "He quickly left the room;" "He has quickly left the room;" but, when emphatic, after the verb: "He left, or has left, the room quickly."[10] When such a sentence as the latter is followed by a present participle, there arises ambiguity. "I told him to go slowly, but he left the room quickly, dropping the purse on the floor." Does quickly here modify left or dropping? The remedy[11] is, to give the adverb its unemphatic place, "He quickly left the room, dropping &c.," or else to avoid the participle, thus: "He quickly dropped the purse and left the room," or "He dropped the purse and quickly left the room."

21. "Only" requires careful use. The strict[12] rule is, that "only" should be placed before the word affected by it.

[Pg 25]

The following is ambiguous:

"The heavens are not open to the faithful only at intervals."

The best rule is to avoid placing "only" between two emphatic words, and to avoid using "only" where "alone" can be used instead.

22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by the same part of speech.

"He not only gave me advice but also help" is wrong. Write "He gave me, not only advice, but also help." On the other hand, "He not only gave me a grammar, but also lent me a dictionary," is right. Take an instance. "He spoke not only forcibly but also tastefully (adverbs), and this too, not only before a small audience, but also in (prepositions) a large public meeting, and his speeches were not only successful, but also (adjective) worthy of success."

23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes produce ambiguity.

"I think you will find my Latin exercise, at all events, as good as my cousin's." Does this mean (1) "my Latin exercise, though not perhaps my other exercises;" or (2), "Though not very good, yet, at all events, as good as my cousin's"? Write for (1), "My Latin exercise, at all events, you will find &c." and for (2), "I think you will find my Latin exercise as good as my cousin's, at all events."

[Pg 26]

The remedy is to avoid placing "at all events" between two emphatic words.

As an example of the misplacing of an adverbial adjunct, take "From abroad he received most favourable reports, but in the City he heard that a panic had broken out on the Exchange, and that the funds were fast falling." This ought to mean that the "hearing," and not (as is intended) that the "breaking out of the panic," took place in the City.

24. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define. In the very common sentence "The death is announced of Mr. John Smith, an author whose works &c.," the transposition is probably made from a feeling that, if we write "The death of Mr. John Smith is announced," we shall be obliged to begin a new sentence, "He was an author whose works &c." But the difficulty can be removed by writing "We regret to announce, or, we are informed of, the death of Mr. John Smith, an author, &c."

25. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of another noun. Avoid, "John Smith, the son of Thomas Smith, who gave me this book," unless Thomas Smith is the antecedent of who. Avoid also "John supplied Thomas with money: he (John) was very well off."

26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible. (But see 55.) The introduction of parentheses violating this rule often produced serious ambiguity. Thus, in the following: "The result of these observations appears to be in opposition to the view now generally [Pg 27]received in this country, that in muscular effort the substance of the muscle itself undergoes disintegration." Here it is difficult to tell whether the theory of "disintegration" is (1) "the result," or, as the absence of a comma after "be" would indicate, (2) "in opposition to the result of these observations." If (1) is intended, add "and to prove" after "country;" if (2), insert "which is" after "country."

There is an excessive complication in the following:—"It cannot, at all events, if the consideration demanded by a subject of such importance from any one professing to be a philosopher, be given, be denied that &c."

Where a speaker feels that his hearers have forgotten the connection of the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat what he has said; e.g. after the long parenthesis in the last sentence he should recommence, "it cannot, I say, be denied." In writing, however, this licence must be sparingly used.

27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.—There is ambiguity in "The lesson intended to be taught by these manœuvres will be lost, if the plan of operations is laid down too definitely beforehand, and the affair degenerates into a mere review." Begin, in any case, with the antecedent, "If the plan," &c. Next write, according to the meaning: (1) "If the plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c., then the lesson will be lost;" or (2) " ... then the lesson ... will be lost, and the affair degenerates into a mere review."

28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from those that are independent.

Take as an example:

(1) "He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to make preparations accordingly."

This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for shortness) to mean:

(2) "He replied ..., and he intended."

In (1), "intended," having no subject, must be supposed to be connected with the nearest preceding verb, in the same mood and tense, that has a subject, i.e. "wished." It follows that (1) is a condensation of:

[Pg 28]

(3) "He replied that he wished ..., and that he intended."

(2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is practically ambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subject unnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word or a full stop between the two statements. Thus:

(4) "He replied that he wished to help them, and indeed he intended," &c., or "He replied, &c. He intended, &c."

Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3) or (4) in preference to (1) or (2).

29. When there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.

"He said that he wished to take his friend with him to visit the capital and to study medicine." Here it is doubtful whether the meaning is—

"He said that he wished to take his friend with him,

(1) and also to visit the capital and study medicine," or

(2) "that his friend might visit the capital and might also study medicine," or

(3) "on a visit to the capital, and that he also wished to study medicine."

From the three different versions it will be perceived that this ambiguity must be met (a) by using "that" for "to," which allows us to repeat an auxiliary verb [e.g. "might" in (2)], and (b) by inserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions, see (37).

"In order to," and "for the purpose of," can be used to distinguish (wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive that expresses a purpose, and an infinitive that does not, e.g. "He told his servant to call upon his friend, to (in order to) give him information about the trains, and not to leave him till he started."

30. The principle of suspense. Write your sentence in such a way that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader may feel the sentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep your reader in suspense. Suspense is caused (1) by placing the "if-clause" first, and not last, in a conditional sentence; (2) by placing participles before the words they qualify; (3) by using suspensive conjunctions, e.g. not only, either, partly, on the one hand, in the first place, &c.

The following is an example of an unsuspended sentence. The sense draggles, and it is difficult to keep up one's attention.

"Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience in parliaments, | where he had served very long, | and was always a man of business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, | and of a [Pg 29]good reputation generally, | though known to be inclined to the Puritan party; yet not of those furious resolutions (Mod. Eng. so furiously resolved) against the Church as the other leading men were, | and wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford,—who had nothing of that spirit."

The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the eight points marked above. When suspended it becomes:—

"Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the Exchequer, was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary experience and for his knowledge of business. He had also a good reputation generally; for, though openly favouring the Puritan party, he was closely devoted to the Earl of Bedford, and, like the Earl, had none of the fanatical spirit manifested against the Church by the other leading men."

30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to introduce unexpectedly, at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (a) " ... not" or (b) " ... which."

(a) "This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classes of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us industry, self-dependence, and frugality, and not, as some say, wastefulness."

Write "not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence, and frugality."

(b) "After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which was a little dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we arrived safely at York, which is a fine old town."

Exception.—When the short final clause is intended to be unexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with something of the sting of an epigram. See (42). Thus:

"The old miser said that he should have been delighted to give the poor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had left his purse at home—a habit of his."

Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words for which we are waiting, i.e. on the end of the sentence. It has been pointed out above that a monotony of final emphasis is objectionable, especially in letter writing and conversation.

32. In a long conditional sentence put the "if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.

Everyone will see the flatness of "Revenge thy father's most unnatural murder, if thou didst ever love him," as compared with the suspense that forces an expression of agony from Hamlet in—

"Ghost. If thou didst ever thy dear father love—
Hamlet. O, God!
Ghost. Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder."

The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is long and complicated, and when it precedes the antecedent or "if-clause." "I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, and to show you the objects of interest in our city, and the beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood, if you were here." Where the "if-clause" comes last, it ought to be very emphatic: "if you were only here."

The introduction of a clause with "if" or "though" in the middle of a sentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when a great part of the sentence depends on "that:" "His enemies answered that, for the sake of preserving the public peace, they would keep quiet for the present, though he declared that cowardice was the motive of the delay, and that for this reason they would put off the trial to a more convenient season." See (27).

33. Suspense[13] is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.

[Pg 31]

"Deserted by his friends, he was forced to have recourse to those that had been his enemies." Here, if we write, "He, deserted by his friends, was forced &c.," he is unduly emphasized; and if we write, "He was forced to have recourse to his enemies, having been deserted by his friends," the effect is very flat.

Of course we might sometimes write "He was deserted and forced &c." But this cannot be done where the "desertion" is to be not stated but implied.

Often, when a participle qualifying the subject is introduced late in the sentence, it causes positive ambiguity: "With this small force the general determined to attack the foe, flushed with recent victory and rendered negligent by success."

34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one hand," add clearness.—Take the following sentence:—"You must take this extremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, and failure disgraceful, as well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your country is endangered." Here, the meaning is liable to be misunderstood, till the reader has gone half through the sentence. Write "Either you must," &c., and the reader is, from the first, prepared for an alternative. Other suspensive conjunctions or phrases are partly, for our part; in the first place; it is true; doubtless; of course; though; on the one hand.

35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would cause ambiguity or obscurity.—The omission is particularly likely to cause obscurity after a Relative standing as Subject:—

"He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is suffering from his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit anyone else to give it advice."

The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of several Verbs. "All the pleasing illusions which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason."

[Pg 32]

36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene.

"He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all his companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and (to) John Smith in particular." Here, omit to, and the meaning may be "that helped all his companions, and John Smith in particular." The intervention of the verb and object, "helped" and "companions," causes this ambiguity.

37. When there are several Verbs at some distance from a Conjunction on which they depend, repeat the Conjunction.[14]

"When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years have made in the ranks of our national authors—and, above all, (when) we refer their rapid disappearance to the quick succession of new competitors—we cannot help being dismayed at the prospect that lies before the writers of the present day."

Here omit "when," and we at once substitute a parenthetical statement for what is really a subordinate clause.

In reporting a speech or opinion, "that" must be continually repeated, to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says with what others say.

"We might say that the Cæsars did not persecute the Christians; (that) they only punished men who were charged, rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, and committing the foulest abominations in secret assemblies; and (that) the refusal to throw frankincense on the altar of Jupiter was not the crime, but only evidence of the crime." But see (6 b).

37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than," "as," &c.

"I think he likes me better than you;" i.e. either "than you like me," or "he likes you."

"Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as did the Spaniard Olivares." Omit "did," and you cause ambiguity.

38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken, repeat the subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said.

"Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports, and populous cities—these are not the elements that constitute a great nation."

[Pg 33]

This repetition (though useful and, when used in moderation, not unpleasant) is more common with speakers than with writers, and with slovenly speakers than with good speakers.

"The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer some fair measure of reform, sufficient at least to satisfy the more moderate, and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever—I say, if we adopt so unwise a policy, the country is in such a condition that we may precipitate a revolution."

Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or repeated, the antecedent must often be repeated also. In the following sentence we have the Subject repeated not only in the final summary, but also as the antecedent:—

"But if there were, in any part of the world, a national church regarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation committed to its care; a church established and maintained by the sword; a church producing twice as many riots as conversions; a church which, though possessing great wealth and power, and though long backed by persecuting laws, had, in the course of many generations, been found unable to propagate its doctrines, and barely able to maintain its ground; a church so odious that fraud and violence, when used against its clear rights of property, were generally regarded as fair play; a church whose ministers were preaching to desolate walls, and with difficulty obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help of bayonets,—such a church, on our principles, could not, we must own, be defended."

39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, in a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."

In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has three terms:—

"To gossip(a) is a fault(b); to libel(a'), a crime(b'); to slander(a''), a sin(b'')."

In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how they contribute to the clearness of a long sentence:—

"Man, working, has contrived(a) the Atlantic Cable, but I declare that it astonishes(b) me far more to think that for his mere amusement(c), that to entertain a mere idle hour(c'), he has created(a') 'Othello' and 'Lear,' and I am more than astonished, I am awe-struck(b'), at that inexplicable elasticity of his nature which enables him, instead of turning away(d) from calamity and grief(e), or instead of merely defying(d') them, actually to make them the material of his amusement(d''), and to draw from the wildest agonies of the human spirit(e') a pleasure which is [Pg 34]not only not cruel(f), but is in the highest degree pure and ennobling(f')."

40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet descends, feebleness and sometimes confusion is the result. The descent is called "bathos."

"What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the animated remonstrances of the unfortunate prisoners?"

"She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues, graceful in her movements, winning in her address, a kind friend, a faithful and loving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she played beautifully on the pianoforte."

40 a. A new construction should not be introduced without cause.—A sudden and apparently unnecessary change of construction causes awkwardness and roughness at least, and sometimes breaks the flow of the sentence so seriously as to cause perplexity. Thus, write "virtuous and accomplished," or "of many virtues and accomplishments," not "of many virtues and accomplished;" "riding or walking" or "on foot or horseback," not "on foot or riding." In the same way, do not put adjectives and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, in too close juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following:—

"He had good reason to believe that the delay was not an accident (accidental) but premeditated, and for supposing (to suppose, or else, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong both by art and naturally (nature), would be forced by the treachery of the governor and the indolent (indolence of the) general to capitulate within a week."

[Pg 35]

"They accused him of being bribed (receiving bribes from) by the king and unwilling (neglecting) to take the city."

41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness.—The meaning of liberal in the following sentence is ascertained by the antithesis:—

"All the pleasing illusions which made power(a) gentle(b) and obedience(a') liberal(b') ... are now to be destroyed."

There is a kind of proportion. As gentleness is to power, so liberality (in the sense here used) is to obedience. Now gentleness is the check on the excess of power; therefore liberal here applies to that which checks the excess of obedience, i.e. checks servility. Hence liberal here means "free."

The contrast also adds force. "They aimed at the rule(a), not at the destruction(a'), of their country. They were men of great civil(b) and great military(b') talents, and, if the terror(c), the ornament(c') of their age."

Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome:—

"Who can persuade where treason(a) is above reason(a'), and might(b) ruleth right(b'), and it is had for lawful(c) whatsoever is lustful(c'), and commotioners(d) are better than commissioners(d'), and common woe(e) is named common wealth(e')?"

42. Epigram.—It has been seen that the neglect of climax results in lameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent produces amusement: and when the descent is intentional and very sudden, the effect is striking as well as amusing. Thus:—

(1) "You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous," is a climax.

(2) "You are not vicious, you are vice," is not climax, nor is it bathos: it is epigram.[15]

Epigram may be defined as a "short sentence expressing truth under an amusing appearance of incongruity." It is often antithetical.

There is a sort of implied antithesis in:—

"He is full of information—(but flat also) like yesterday's Times."

"Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large vocabulary."

[Pg 36]

The name of epigram may sometimes be given to a mere antithesis; e.g. "An educated man should know something of everything, and everything of something."

43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought.

"This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, leaving behind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numerous family, of whom three were sons; one of them, George, the eldest, heir to his father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland, where most of his father's property was situate, and shortly afterwards elected member for the county, which had for several generations returned this family to serve in Parliament." Here we have (1) the "great and good man," (2) "George," (3) "the county," disputing which is to be considered the principal subject. Two, if not three sentences should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoid a long sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on one level. It is called heterogeneous.

44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of each sentence.—Leave out the conjunctions and other connecting words, and it will be seen that the following sentences lose much of their meaning:—

"Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace. His biographer (accordingly) insists on our confessing, that, if the young cornet had remained in the service, he would have been one of the ablest commanders that ever lived. (But) this is not all. Pitt (, it seems,) was not merely a great poet in esse and a great general in posse, but a finished example of moral excellence.... (The truth is, that) there scarcely ever lived a person who had so little claim to this sort of praise as Pitt. He was (undoubtedly) a great man. (But) his was not a complete and well-proportioned greatness. The public life of Hampden or of Somers resembles a regular drama which can be criticised as a whole, and every scene of which is to be viewed in connection with the main action. The public life of Pitt (, on the other hand,) is," &c.

The following are some of the most common connecting adverbs, or connecting phrases: (1) expressing consequence, similarity, repetition, or resumption of a subject—accordingly, therefore, then, naturally, so that, thus, in this way, again, once more, to resume, to continue, to sum up, in fact, upon this; (2) expressing opposition—nevertheless, in spite of this, yet, still, however, but, on the contrary, on the other hand; (3) expressing suspension—undoubtedly ... but;[Pg 37] indeed ... yet; on the one hand ... on the other; partly ... partly; some ... others.

Avoid a style like that of Bishop Burnet, which strings together a number of sentences with "and" or "so," or with no conjunction at all:

"Blake with the fleet happened to be at Malaga, before he made war upon Spain; and some of his seamen went ashore, and met the Host carried about; and not only paid no respect to it, but laughed at those who did." Write "When Blake &c."

45. The connection between two long sentences sometimes requires a short intervening sentence, showing the transition of thought.

"Without force or opposition, it (chivalry) subdued the fierceness of pride and power; it obliged sovereigns to submit to the soft collar[16] of social esteem, compelled stern authority to submit to elegance, and gave a dominating vanquisher of laws to be subdued by manners. But now (all is to be changed:) all the pleasing illusions which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason." If the words italicized were omitted, the transition would be too abrupt: the conjunction but alone would be insufficient.

BREVITY.

46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement. See (13).

"The cares and responsibilities of a sovereign often disturb his sleep," is not so brief as "Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown," where the effect of care on the mind is assimilated to the effect of a heavy crown pressing on the head.

47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular terms. Thus: "He devours literature, no matter of what kind," is shorter than, "Novels or sermons, poems or histories, no matter what, he devours them all."

[Pg 38]

47 a. A phrase may be expressed by a word.

"These impressions can never be forgotten, i.e. are indelible."

"The style of this book is of such a nature that it cannot be understood, i.e. unintelligible."

The words "of such a nature that" are often unnecessarily inserted. See the extract from Sir Archibald Alison.

48. Participles can often be used as brief (though sometimes ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.

"Hearing (when he heard) this, he advanced." See (7) for more instances. So "phrases containing conjunctions" means "phrases that contain conjunctions." "This done, (for, when this was done) he retired."

Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted. "France at our doors, he sees no danger nigh," for "France being" or "though France is."

49. Participles and participial adjectives may be used like Adjectives, as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.

"The never-ceasing wind," "the clamouring ocean," "the drenching rain," are instances. The licence of inventing participial adjectives by adding -ing to a noun, is almost restricted to poetry. You could not write "the crannying wind" in prose.

50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being expressed at length. Thus, instead of "The spirit of Christianity was humanizing, and therefore &c.," or "Christianity, since it was (or being) of a humanizing spirit, discouraged &c.," we can write more briefly and effectively, "Gladiatorial shows were first discouraged, and finally put down, by the humanizing spirit of Christianity." So instead of "The nature of youth is thoughtless and sanguine, and therefore &c.," we can write, "The danger of the voyage was depreciated and the beauty of the island exaggerated by the thoughtless nature of youth."

Sometimes a mere name or epithet implies a statement. "It was in vain that he offered the Swiss terms: war was deliberately preferred by the hardy mountaineers," i.e. "by the Swiss, because they were mountaineers and hardy." "The deed was applauded by all honest men, but the Government affected to treat it as [Pg 39]murder, and set a price upon the head of (him whom they called) the assassin." "The conqueror of Austerlitz might be expected to hold different language from the prisoner of St. Helena," i.e. "Napoleon when elated by the victory of Austerlitz," and "Napoleon when depressed by his imprisonment at St. Helena."

51. Conjunctions may be omitted. The omission gives a certain forcible abruptness, e.g. "You say this: I (on the other hand) deny it."

When sentences are short, as in Macaulay's writings, conjunctions may be advantageously omitted.

51 a. The Imperative Mood may be used for "if."

"Strip (for, if you strip) Virtue of the awful authority she derives from the general reverence of mankind, and you rob her of half her majesty."

52. Apposition may be used so as to convert two sentences into one.

"We called at the house of a person to whom we had letters of introduction, a musician, and, what is more, a good friend to all young students of music." This is as clear as, and briefer than, "He was a musician, &c."

53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common subject of several verbs, (2) the common object of several verbs or prepositions.

(1) "He resided here for many years, and, after he had won the esteem of all the citizens, (he) died," &c. So, (2) "He came to, and was induced to reside in, this city," is shorter than "He came to this city, and was induced to reside in it."

Such condensation often causes obscurity, and, even where there is no obscurity, there is a certain harshness in pausing on light, unemphatic words, such as to, in, &c., as in the first example.

54. Tautology.—The fault of repeating the same word several times unnecessarily is called tautology, e.g.:

"This is a painful circumstance; it is a circumstance that I [Pg 40]much regret, and he also will much regret the circumstance." But the fault is not to be avoided by using different words to mean the same thing, as, "This is a painful event; it is a circumstance that I much regret, and he also will greatly lament the occurrence." The true remedy is to arrange the words in such a manner that there may be no unnecessary repetition, thus: "This is a painful circumstance, a circumstance that causes me, and will cause him, deep regret."

The repetition of the same meaning in slightly different words is a worse fault than the repetition of the same word. See, for examples, the extract from Sir Archibald Alison, at the end of the book. Thus "A burning thirst for conquests is a characteristic of this nation. It is an ardent passion that &c." Other instances are—"The universal opinion of all men;" "His judgment is so infallible that it is never deceived," &c.

55. Parenthesis may be used with advantage to brevity.

"We are all (and who would not be?) offended at the treatment we have received," is shorter and more forcible than the sentence would have been if the parenthesis had been appended in a separate sentence: "Who, indeed, would not be offended?"

Extreme care must, however, be taken that a parenthesis may not obscure the meaning of a long sentence.

56. Caution: let clearness be the first consideration. It is best, at all events for beginners, not to aim so much at being brief, or forcible, as at being perfectly clear. Horace says, "While I take pains to be brief, I fall into obscurity," and it may easily be seen that several of the rules for brevity interfere with the rules for clearness.

Forcible style springs from (1) vividness and (2) exactness of thought, and from a corresponding (1) vividness and (2) exactness in the use of words.

(1) When you are describing anything, endeavour to see it and describe it as you see it. If you are writing about a man who was killed, see the man before you, and ask, was he executed, cut down, run through the body, butchered, shot, or hanged? If you are writing about the capture of a city, was the city stormed, surprised, surrendered, starved out, or demolished before surrender? Was an army repelled, defeated, routed, crushed, or annihilated?

(2) Exactness in the use of words requires an exact knowledge of their meanings and differences. This is a study by itself, and cannot be discussed here.[17]

[Pg 41]

EXERCISES

For an explanation of the manner in which these Exercises are intended to be used, see the Preface.

A number in brackets by itself, or followed by a letter, e.g. (43), (40 a), refers to the Rules.

Letters by themselves in brackets, e.g. (b), refer to the explanations or hints appended to each sentence.

N.B..—(10 a) refers to the first section of Rule (10); (10 a') to the Rule following Rule (10).

1. "Pleasure and excitement had more attractions for him than (a) (36) (37 a) his friend, and the two companions became estranged (15 a) gradually."

(a) Write (1) "than for his friend," or (2) "than had his friend," "had more attractions than his friend."

2. "(a) He soon grew tired of solitude even in that beautiful scenery, (36) the pleasures of the retirement (8) which he had once pined for, and (36) leisure which he could use to no good purpose, (a) (30) being (15) restless by nature."

(a) This sentence naturally stops at "purpose." Also "being restless" seems (wrongly) to give the reason why "leisure" could not be employed. Begin "Restless by nature...."

3. "The opponents of the Government are naturally, and not (a) (40 a) without justification, elated at the failure of the bold attempt to return two supporters of the Government at the recent election, (b) (10 a') which is certainly to be regretted."

(a) "unjustifiably." (b) Write, for "which," either (1) "an attempt that &c.," or (2) "a failure that &c."

4. "Carelessness in the Admiralty departments has co-operated with Nature to weaken the moral power of a Government that particularly needs to be thought efficient in (a) (5) this[Pg 42] respect, (b) (29) to counterbalance a general distrust of its excessive desire (c) (47 a) to please everybody in Foreign Affairs."

(a) Write "the Navy." (b) Instead of "to" write "in order to," so as to distinguish the different infinitives, (c) "obsequiousness."

5. "(a) He was sometimes supported by Austria, who, oddly enough, appears under Count Beust to have been more friendly to Italy than (37 a) France, (30) in this line of action."

(a) Begin with "In this line of action." Why? (b) Write "than was France" or "than France was."

6. "There was something so startling in (a) (5) this assertion, (a) (4) that the discoveries of previous investigators were to be (b) (47 a) treated as though they had never been made, and (4) that one who had not yet (47 a) attained the age of manhood had superseded the grey-headed philosophers (8) who had for centuries patiently sought after the truth, (4) that (a) (5) it naturally provoked derision."

(a) "This," "that," and "it," cause a little perplexity. Write "The startling assertion that the discoveries...." (b) "ignored." (c) "a mere youth," "a mere stripling."

7. "One of the recommendations (on which very (a) (26) (47, a) much depended) of the Commission was that a council in each province should establish smaller councils, each to have the oversight of a small district, and (b) (37) report to a central council on the state of Education in (c) (5) it."

(a) Write "cardinal recommendations." Derive "cardinal." (b) Write, either (1) "and should report," or (2) "and to report." (c) Write "in its province," or "district."

8. "At this (a) (1) period an (b) (11) event (c) (1) transpired that destroyed the last hopes of peace. The king fell from his horse and died two hours after the fall (d) (30), which was occasioned by his horse's stumbling on a mole-hill, while he was on his return from reviewing his soldiers."

(a) What is a "period"? (b) Express the particular kind of event ("accident"). (c) What is the meaning of "transpired"? (d) Transpose thus: "While the king was on his return ... his horse ...; the king fell and &c." The cause should precede the effect.

9. "He determined (c) on selling all his estates, and, as soon as this was done (40 a), to (c) quit the country, (a) (33) believing that his honour demanded this sacrifice and (40) (40 a) in (b) the hope of satisfying his creditors."

(a) Begin with "Believing that &c." (b) "hoping thereby to satisfy &c." (c) "to sell" or "on quitting.".

[Pg 43]

10. "He read patiently on, Leading Articles, Foreign Correspondence, Money Article and all; (a) (43) during which his father fell asleep, and he (b) went in search of his sister."

Point out the absurdity of "during which" applied to the last part of the sentence. (a) "Meanwhile." (b) Insert "then."

11. "The general was quite (a) (1) conscious (40 a) how treacherous were the intentions of those who were (b) (49) entertaining him, and (40 a) of the dangers from which he had escaped (15) lately."

(a) Distinguish between "conscious" and "aware." (b) "entertainers."

12. "If certain (a) (11) books had been published a hundred years ago, there can be no doubt that certain recent (b) (11) historians would have made great use of them. But it would (c) (15 b) not, on that account, be judicious in a writer of our own times to publish an edition of the works of one of these (b) (11) historians, in which large extracts from these books should be incorporated with the original text."

(a) "Mrs. Hutchinson's Memoirs." (b) "Mr. Hume." (c) Add at the end of the sentence, "Surely not."

13. "He made no attempt to get up a petition, (32) though he did not like the new representative quite so well as (a) (37 a) his colleagues."

(a) "as did his colleagues" or "as he liked his colleagues."

14. "Though he was (a) (15) obstinate and (15) unprincipled, yet he could not face an angered father (15 a) in spite of his effrontery."

(a) Begin with "Obstinate."

15. "He was known to his country neighbours (a) (15) during more than forty years as a gentleman of cultivated mind, (40 a) whose principles were high, (40 a) with polished address, happy in his family, and (b) (40 a) actively discharging local duties; and (40 a) among political men, as an honest, industrious, and sensible member of Parliament, (40 a) without (c) eagerness to display his talents, (40 a) who (10 g) was stanch to his party, and attentive to the interests of those whose (d) (47 a) representative he was."

(a) "During more &c.," is emphatic, and affects the latter as well as the former half of the sentence: hence it should stand first. (b) "in the discharge of." (c) "not eager." (d) Condense into one word.

[Pg 44]

16. "The poor think themselves no more disgraced by taking bribes at elections than (a) (37 a) the rich by offering them."

(a) Write (1) "Than the rich think themselves disgraced," or (2) "Than they think the rich disgraced."

17. "We are told that the Sultan Mahmoud, by his perpetual wars, (a) (41) and his tyranny, (a) (41) had filled his dominions with (b) (1) misfortune and (c) (11) calamity, and greatly (d) (11) diminished the population of the Persian Empire. This great Sultan had (e) (50) a Vizier. We are not (f) (55) (15) informed whether he was a humorist or an enthusiast, (g) but he pretended (h) that he had learned from (i) (11) some one how to understand the language of birds, so that he (j) (5) knew what was said by any bird that opened its mouth. (k) (44) One evening he was with the Sultan, returning from hunting. They saw a couple of owls which (10 g) were sitting upon a tree (l) (8) which grew near an old wall out of a heap of rubbish. The Sultan said (6) he should like to know what the two owls were saying to one another, and asked the (m) Vizier to listen to their discourse and give him an account of it. The Vizier, (n) (31) pretending to be very attentive to the owls, approached the tree. He (o) returned to the Sultan and said that (6) he had heard part of their conversation, but did not wish to tell him what it was. (p) (5) He, not (q) (31) being satisfied with this answer, forced him to repeat everything the owls had said (20) exactly. (r) (44) (5) (6) He told (5) him that the owls were arranging a treaty of marriage between their children, and that one of them, after agreeing to settle five hundred villages upon the female owl, had prayed (6) that God would grant a long life to Sultan Mahmoud, because as long as he reigned over them they would never want ruined villages. The story says (s) that (t) (5) he was touched with the fable, (30) and (s) that he (a) (39) from that time forward consulted (15) the good of his people, and that he rebuilt the towns and villages (v) which had been destroyed."

(a) "abroad ... at home." (b) "ruin." (c) "desolation." (d) "half unpeopled." (e) "The Vizier of &c." (f) "We are not informed" is emphatic, and therefore should be inverted, "whether he was, &c., we are not informed." (g) "but he" will be omitted when "the Vizier" is made the subject of "pretended." (h) "Pretended" once meant "claimed," "professed." Write "professed." (i) "a certain dervish." (j) Introduce a new subject that you may substitute "Vizier" for "he," thus: "so that not a bird could open its mouth, but the Vizier knew &c." (k) "As he was, one evening, &c." (l) Note that the tree is represented as growing out of ruins. This is in accordance with the story of the mischief Mahmoud had done. (m) Omit this. (n) "Suspense" is out of place in a simple narrative like this; the sentence therefore ends with "owls." (o) "Upon his return." (p) "The Sultan" (q) "would not be satisfied." (r) "You must know then, &c." (s) Omit. (t) "so touched ... that." (u) end with "people." (v) Addison here uses[Pg 45] "which" probably because of the preceding "that." We have to choose between sound and clearness. "Which" implies that all the villages in the country had been destroyed, whereas the country had been only (see above) "half unpeopled."

18. "Though this great king never permitted any pastime to interfere with the duties of state, which he considered to be superior to (54) all other claims and of paramount importance, and (a) (37) kept himself so far under control that he allowed no one pursuit or amusement to run to any excess, yet he took (54) great pleasure in the chase, of which he was (b) (2) excessively (54) fond, and for the purposes of which he created several large parks of considerable (54) magnitude."

(a) Either repeat "though," or else strikeout the first "though" and begin a new sentence after "excess." (b) Point out the contradiction between "excessively" and what precedes.

19. "To inundate (a) (11) their land, to man their ships, to leave their country, with all its miracles of art and industry, its cities, its villas, and its (b) (11) pastures buried under the waves (c) (11); to bear to a distant climate their (d) (11) faith and their old (e) (11) liberties; to establish, with auspices that (10 a) might perhaps be happier, the new (f) (11) constitution of their commonwealth, in a (g) (11) foreign and strange (h) (11) land, in the Spice Islands of the Eastern Seas, (38) were the plans which they had the spirit to form."

(a) Introduce "dykes." (b) Introduce something peculiar to the Dutch, e.g. "canals," "tulip gardens." (c) "of the German Ocean." (d) The Dutch were Calvinists. (e) The country was in old times "Batavia," so that "Batavian" would be a fit epithet to denote what the Dutch had inherited from their forefathers. (f) "Stadthaus," the German for "town-hall." (g) "other stars." (h) "strange vegetation."

20. "During twenty years of unexampled prosperity, during (a) which the wealth of the nation had shot (14 a) up and extended its branches on every side, and the funds had (14 a) soared to a higher point than had been ever attained before, (b) (15) speculation had become general."

(a) Omit. (b) Begin a new sentence: "This, or Prosperity, had increased the taste for speculation."

21. "At that time (a) (16) a mere narrow-minded pedant (for he deserves no better name) had been set up by the literary world as a great author, and as the supreme (b) critic, alone qualified to deliver decisions which could never be (b) reversed upon (15 a) the literary productions of the day."

[Pg 46]

(a) End with " ... one who was—for he deserves no better name—a mere narrow-minded pedant." (b) "Which could never be reversed" can be expressed in one word; or else "the supreme ... reversed" may be condensed into a personification: "a very Minos of contemporary criticism."

22. "With the intention of fulfilling his promise, and (40 a) intending also to clear himself from the suspicion that attached to him, he determined to ascertain how (40 a) far this testimony was corroborated, and (a) (40 a) the motives of the prosecutor, (b) (43) who had begun the suit last Christmas."

(a) "what were." (b) Begin a new sentence, "The latter &c.," or "The suit had been begun &c."

23. "The Jewish nation, relying on the teaching of their prophets, looked forward to a time when its descendants should be as numerous as the heavenly (11) bodies, and when the products (a) (11) of the earth should be so increased as to create an abundant (54) plenty, when each man should rest beneath the shade of his own (a) (11) trees, and when the instruments (11) of war should be converted to the (11) uses of peace."

(a) Mention some "products," "trees" of Palestine.

24. "He replied (32), when he was asked the reason for his sudden unpopularity, that he owed it to his refusal to annul the commercial treaty, (a) (8) which (10 a') gave great displeasure to the poorer classes."

(a) Point out the ambiguity, and remove it by (8) or (10 a').

25. "I saw my old schoolfellow again by mere accident when I was in London at the time of the first Exhibition, (19) walking down Regent Street and looking in at the shops."

Point out and remove the ambiguity.

26. "He remained in the House while his speech was taken into consideration; which (52) was a common practice with him, because the debates amused his sated mind, and indeed he used to say (a) (6 b) that they were sometimes as good as a comedy. His Majesty had certainly never seen a more (17) sudden turn in any comedy of intrigue, either at his own play-house or the Duke's, than that which this memorable debate produced."

(a) "and were sometimes, he used to say, as good &c."

27. "The Commons would not approve the war (20) expressly; neither did they as yet condemn it (20) expressly; and (a) (18) the [Pg 47]king might even have obtained a supply for continuing hostilities (19) from them, on condition of (b) redressing grievances connected with the (c) administration of affairs at home, among which the Declaration of Indulgence was a very important (d) (15 a) one."

(a) Write "they were even ready to grant the king &c." (b) Use the verb with a subject, (c) Condense all this into one adjective, meaning "that which takes place at home." (d) End with a noun, "importance," or "foremost place."

28. "Next to thinking clearly, (a) (5) it is useful to speak clearly, and whatever your position in life may hereafter be it cannot be such (54) as not to be improved by this, (b) so that it is worth while making almost any effort to acquire (c) it, if it is not a natural gift: (d) it being an undoubted (d) fact that the effort to acquire it must be successful, to some extent at least, if (d) it be moderately persevered in."

(a) "Next in utility ... comes speaking clearly—a power that must be of assistance to you &c." (b)" If, therefore, you cannot speak clearly by nature, you &c." (c) "this power." (d) Omit "fact;" "for undoubtedly, with moderate perseverance &c."

29. "It (a) (38) appears to me (15) a greater victory than Agincourt, a grander triumph of wisdom and faith and courage than even the English constitution or (b) liturgy, to have beaten back, or even fought against and stemmed in ever so small a degree, those basenesses that (c) (10 a) beset human nature, which are now held so invincible that the influences of them are assumed as the fundamental axioms of economic science."

(a) Begin with "To have beaten &c.," and end with "liturgy." (b) Repeat for clearness and emphasis, "the English." (c) "The besetting basenesses of &c."

30. "The (a) (2) unprecedented impudence of our youthful representative reminds us forcibly of the unblushing and (54) (40) remarkable effrontery (c) (which (26) he almost succeeds in equalling) of the Member for St. Alban's, whom our (b) (1) neophyte (b) (1) alluded to, in the last speech with which he favoured those whom (47 a) he represents, (19) as his pattern and example."

(a) Show that "unprecedented" is inconsistent with what follows. (b) What is the meaning of "neophyte," "alluded to"? (c) Begin a new sentence, "Our young adventurer &c.," and end with "and he almost succeeds in equalling his master."

31. "The (a) (1) veracity of this story is questionable, and there is the more reason for doubting the (a) (1) truth of the narrator, because in his remarks on the (1) observation of the Sabbath he [Pg 48]distinctly (a) (1) alludes to a custom that can be shown never to have existed."

(a) Distinguish between "veracity" and "truth," "observation" and "observance." Show the inconsistency between "allude" and "distinctly."

32. "It (a) (5) is a most just distribution, (10 a) which the late Mr. Tucker has dwelt upon so (b) largely in his works, between pleasures in which we are passive, and pleasures in which we are active. And I believe every attentive observer of human life will assent to (c) this position, that however (d) grateful the sensations may occasionally be in which we are passive, it is not these, but the latter class of our pleasures, (8) which constitutes satisfaction, (e) (38) which supply that regular stream of moderate and miscellaneous enjoyments in (10 c) which happiness, as distinguished from voluptuousness, consists."

(a) "There is great justice in &c." (b) Omit "so." (c) "admit." (d) Not often now used in this sense. (e) Repeat the antecedent, "I mean those (pleasures) &c."

33. "The prince seemed to have before him a limitless (54) prospect of unbounded prosperity, carefully (33) trained for the (a) tasks of the throne, and stimulated by the (a) pattern of his father, (b) who (43) breathed his (3) last suddenly at the age of sixty-two, just after the conclusion of the war."

(a) Find more appropriate words. (b) Begin a new sentence.

34. "On his way, he visited a son of an old friend (a) (25) who had asked him to call upon him on his journey northward. He (b) (5) was overjoyed to see him, and (c) he sent for one of his most intelligent workmen and told (d) him to consider himself at (e) his service, (30) as he himself could not take (f) him as he (g) wished about the city."

(a) If you mean that the "son" had "asked him," write "An old friend's son who;" if you mean that the "friend" had "asked him," write "He had been asked by an old friend to call, on his journey northward, upon his son. Accordingly he visited him on his way." (b) Use, instead of he, some name meaning "one who entertains others." (c) Use participle, (d) "The man." (e) "the stranger's." (f) "his guest." (g) Write "could have wished" to make it clear that "he" means "the host."

35. "Tillotson died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved both by King William and by Queen Mary (43), who nominated Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him."

36. "(a) The entertainment was arranged with a magnificence that was (b) perfectly stupendous and (c) most unprecedented, and [Pg 49]which quite kept up his Lordship's unrivalled reputation for unparalleled hospitality, and, thanks to the unequalled energy of Mr. Smith, who is rapidly becoming one of the most effective toast-masters in the kingdom, the toasts were given with a spirit quite unexampled on occasions of this nature; and indeed we were forcibly reminded in this respect of the inimitable entertainment of three years ago (2)."

(a) Omit most of the epithets, or soften them down. Point out the contradictions in the sentence as it stands. (b) Write "a remarkable magnificence that quite &c.," thus dispensing with the following "and." (c) Show that "most" is superfluous.

37. "If we compare Shakespeare with the other dramatic authors of the Elizabethan era, his wonderful superiority to them in the (15) knowledge of human nature is what (15 a) principally strikes us."

38. "The prince found himself at once in sore perplexity how to provide himself with the commonest comforts or even necessaries of life, when he landed on this desolate coast, being (33) accustomed to luxury."

39. "This make-shift policy recommended itself to the succeeding ministers (a) (50), both because they were timid and because they were prejudiced, and they were delighted to excuse (b) (13) themselves by quoting the example of one who (c) (34) had controlled the Liberals and humoured the Conservatives, (37) commended himself to the country at large by his unfailing good-humour, and (d) (44) (37) done nothing worthy of the name of statesman."

(a) "to the timidity and prejudices of &c." (b) "shelter themselves behind." (c) "while he had at once." (d) "had yet done."

40. "William Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights of English poetry, and a native of Stratford-on-Avon (14 a)."

41. "(15 b) I think, gentlemen, you must confess that any one of you would have done the same (32), if you had been tempted as I was then, placed starving and ragged among wasteful luxury and comfort, deliberately instigated to acts of dishonesty by those whom I had been taught from infancy to love, (a) praised when I stole, mocked or punished when I failed to (15 a) do (b) so."

(a) Insert another infinitive beside "love." "Love" produces "obedience." (b) Repeat the verb instead of "do so."

42. "So far from being the first (54) aggressor, he not (22) only refused to prosecute his old friend when a favourable opportunity [Pg 50]presented itself for revenging himself thus upon him, but also his friend's adviser, John Smith. Smith (a) at all (23) events suspected, if he did not know of the coming danger, and had given no information of it."

(a) If "at all events" qualifies "Smith," the sentence must be altered. "Yet, however innocent his friend may have been, at all events Smith suspected...." If the words qualify "suspected," place them after "suspected."

43. "It is quite true that he paid 5s. per day to English navvies, and even 6s., (19) in preference to 2s. 6d. to French navvies."

44. "Having climbed to the apex of the Righi to enjoy the spectacle of the sun-rise, I found myself so incommoded by a number of illiterate individuals who had emerged from the hotel for a (a) (1) similar purpose, that I determined to quit them at the earliest practicable period; and therefore, without stopping to partake of breakfast, I wended my way back with all possible celerity." (3)

(a) "the same."

45. "You admit that miracles are not natural. Now whatever is unnatural is wrong, and since, by your own admission, miracles are unnatural, it follows that miracles are wrong." (1)

46. "Who is the man that has dared to call into civilized alliance the (a) (41) inhabitant of the woods, to delegate to the (a) Indian the defence of our disputed rights?

(a) Insert some antithetical or other epithets.

47. "A (a) very (11) small proportion indeed of those who have attempted to solve this problem (b) (19) have succeeded in obtaining even a plausible solution."

(a) State what proportion succeeded, or, if you like, what failed: "not one in a hundred." (b) Begin, "Of all those that &c."

48. "To be suddenly (a) (47 a) brought into contact with a system (8) which forces one to submit to wholesale imposture, and to being (40 a) barbarously ill-treated, naturally repels (a) (15 a) one."

(a) Write, either (1) "Collision ... causes a natural repulsion," or (2) "When brought into contact ... one is naturally repelled," or (if "ill-treatment" is emphatic), (3) "One is naturally repelled by collision with &c."

49. "We annex a letter recently addressed by Mr. ——'s direction to the Editor of the ——, in contradiction of statements, equally untrue, which appeared in that periodical, and (a) (9) which the editor has undertaken to insert in the next number.... I [Pg 51]am sure that all must regret that statements so (b) (51) utterly erroneous should have (c) (23) first appeared in a publication of such high character."

(a) What the writer intended to express was that the editor had undertaken to insert, not the "statements," but the "contradiction." (b) Omit either "so" or "utterly." (c) "appeared first," or, "for the first time."

50. "This is a book which (10 a) is short and amusing, which (10 a) can be easily (a) understood, which (10 a) is admirably adapted for the purpose for which it (b) was (54) written; and (10 e) which ought to be more popular than the last work which (10 a) was published by the same author."

(a) Express "which can be understood" in one adjective. (b) "Its purpose."

51. "When thousands are left (19) without (40) pity and without (40) attention (19) on a field of battle, amid (40) the insults of an enraged foe and (40) the trampling of horses, while the blood from their wounds, freezing as it flows, binds them to the earth, and (40) they are exposed to the piercing air, it (15 a) must be indeed a painful scene."

The whole sentence must be remedied by (40).

52. "(a) The youth was naturally thoughtful, and disposed (19) besides by his early training—(31) which had been conducted with great care, the object of his parents being to pave (14) his way as far as possible over the stormy (14) sea of temptation and to lead him into the harbour of virtue—to a sincere (b) (1) remorse (19) for the (b) (1) crimes that he had committed in the sight of heaven, and also for his recent (b) (1) sin in breaking the laws of his country."

(a) First state the reasons for his being "disposed." "The youth was naturally thoughtful; moreover, his early training had been conducted with great care by his parents, whose &c. .... He was therefore disposed &c." (b) What is the difference between "remorse" and "repentance," between "sin" and "crime"?

53. "(a) One day (54) early in the morning, the general was approached by a messenger, (30) in the midst of the entanglements and perplexities which had unexpectedly surprised him, when the perilous hour of (54) danger was at hand, and (37), in spite of their promises, even the tribes that were well disposed (54) and friendly, were threatening to desert him, and (54) leave him to face the enemy (b) (23) alone."

Condense the sentence by omitting some of the italicized words, e.g. (a) "Early one morning." (b) Though there is no real ambiguity (unless a wrong emphasis is placed on "enemy"), yet, in strictness, "alone" ought to qualify "enemy." Write therefore, "alone in the face of the enemy."

[Pg 52]

54. "A man (a) (10 d) who neglected the ordinary duties of life, and, immersed in study, devoted himself to grand plans for the benefit of mankind, (b) (44) and refused to provide for the wants of those dependent on him, and suffered his aged relatives to become paupers because he would not help them, (c) would, in my opinion, (34) be a bad man, and not altogether (d) (40 a) without hypocrisy."

(a) "If a man." (b) "if he refused," or "while he refused." (c) "such a man" or "he." (d) "to some extent a hypocrite."

55. "I cannot believe in the guilt of (a) one (b) (10 e) who, whatever may have been said to the contrary, can be shown, and has been shown by competent testimony proceeding from those who are said to have carefully examined the facts, in spite (23) of many obstacles, to have resisted all attempts to (29) induce him to leave his situation, (c) (29) to consult his own interests and to (29) establish a business of his own."

(a) "his guilt;" (b) (1) "for, whatever &c.... it can be shown by &c.... that, in spite of &c., he resisted." Or (2) insert "in spite ... obstacles" between "have" and "carefully." (c) (1) "for the purpose of consulting ... and establishing." Or (2) write "and to consult his own interests by establishing &c."

56. "We must seek for the origin of our freedom, (a) (37) prosperity, and (a) (37) glory, in that and only (b) that[18] portion of our annals, (30) though it (c) is sterile and obscure. The great English people was (d) then formed; the notional (e) disposition began (d) then to exhibit those peculiarities which it has ever since (e) possessed; and our fathers (d) then became emphatically islanders, (f) in their politics, (a) feelings, and (a) manners, and (30 a) not merely in their geographical position."

(a) Repeat the Pronominal Adjective, (b) Express the emphatic "only that" by beginning the sentence thus: "It is in that portion of our annals &c." (c) Omit. (d) "It was then that &c." (e) Use words implying something more marked than "disposition," and more forcible than "possessed;" in the latter case, "retained." (f) Repeat "islanders."

57. "(a) He was the universal (54) favourite of (54) all (8) who knew him, and cemented many friendships at this period, (a) (33) (moving in the highest circle of society, and, as he (b) (50) had a (4 a) certain property, being independent of the profits of literature), and soon completely extinguished the breath of slander which at the outset of his career had threatened to sap the foundations of his reputation."

(a) Begin "Moving in &c." (b) "rendered independent of ... by &c." Show that Rule (14) is violated by the metaphors.

[Pg 53]

58. "The outward and material form of that city which, during the brief period which (10 a) is comprised in our present book, reached the highest pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory, was of this (a) (15) nature. The progress of the (b) (5) first has been already traced."

(a) Begin the sentence with "Such was." (b) By "the first" is meant "military glory."

59. "The detachment not only failed to take the fort, (30) spite of their numbers and the weakness of the garrison, but also to capture the small force that was encamped outside the town, and was, after some sharp fighting, driven back with inconsiderable loss."

Point out the ambiguity. Remedy it by inserting either "which," or "the assailants."

60. "(a) (b) Believing that these reforms can only (c) (21) be effected as public opinion is prepared for them, and that (5) this will be more or less advanced in different localities, the Bill of the Association, (a) (31) which has been for a (3) considerable period in draft, and will be introduced in the next Session of Parliament, provides for placing (d) (3) the control in regard to the points above-mentioned in the (3) hands of the ratepayers of each locality; the power to be exercised through representative Licensing Boards to be periodically elected by them."

(a) Place the parenthesis first, as an independent sentence: "The Bill of the Association has been ... Parliament." (b) What noun is qualified by "believing?" Write "In the belief." (c) "effected only so far as they are in accordance with public opinion, which &c." (d) "it, or, the Bill provides that the ratepayers ... shall receive control ... and shall exercise this control."

61. "I think they are very (1) nice persons, for they kept me amused for a long (a) (11) time together yesterday by their (1) nice stories all about what they (b) have experienced in Japan, where they had been for (a) ever so long, and (c) (43) where they said that the natives ripped up their (d) (5) stomachs."